Communication Skills for Life

Communication Skills For Life Theory and Practice
COMMUNICATION SKILLS: THEORY AND PRACTICE
NABUTANYI EDGAR
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY PRESS
KAMPALA
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Communication Skills For Life Theory and Practice
Publication Details
© Nabutanyi Edgar
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owner.
First Published 2009
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Communication Skills For Life Theory and Practice
Dedication
TO
Tim, Kim and DeAndre.
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Communication Skills For Life Theory and Practice
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to many people who inspired, encouraged and supported me in
this project. To all of you I say thank you very much.
I want to extend my sincere thanks to the head teachers and students of
Brilliant High School, Bethany High School, East High School, Budadiri Girls’
S.S and Kitende S.S for having given me the opportunity to teacher Literature
and English Language, thereby the chance to formulate the idea that has now
become a book.
I would also like to thank the English Language class of Ndejje University
2006/07: Nambi Tina, Lawino Rebecca, Mibei Agnes, Nakalanzi Martha and
Kakuru Jackson whose research and writing tasks for EL 323 provided the
samples writings of this booklet.
Special thanks go to the Management of Ndejje University for giving me the
facilities and resources that have made it possible for this project to become
a reality.
I thank my family for the sacrifice and understanding during the writing of
this book.
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Table of Contents

Publication Details
.......................................................................................................................................... 2


Dedication

....................................................................................................................................................... 3


Acknowledgements
......................................................................................................................................... 4


Table of Contents
............................................................................................................................................ 5


Introduction to communication
.....................................................................................................................
7

Types of communication..............................................................................................................................27

Language and Style in Communication
......................................................................................................
46


Writing and Communication
.......................................................................................................................
58


English Language Grammar, Spelling and Vocabulary of English
.........................................................
73


Sources of Information and Forms of Academic Communication
........................................................ 103


The Internet and Communication: The Value and Bottlenecks of the Internet in Communication
113
..

Speech as Communication
......................................................................................................................... 123


Writing Letters and Other Documents
.....................................................................................................
143


References:
.................................................................................................................................................. 192

Preface
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It is a well known fact that the standards of English language have drastically
fallen in Uganda. High school and university graduates can neither speak nor
write in English in the same way their parents did or do. In fact a report on the
status of Universal Primary Education (2005) revealed that the PLE graduates
can neither read nor write.
This means that as a country, our educational system is producing a labour
force that can not communicate effectively. A labour force that cannot
effectively communicate cannot be productive. This is because communication
is a key to production in and at all levels.
This book tries to address this problem by trying to explain and demonstrate
the ability to communicate effectively. This is by exhaustive discussion of the
theory and practice of communication. The book acknowledges that effective
communication is an aggregate of many elements of language and context.
Nevertheless, it recognises that knowledge of the form and structure of
everyday communication strategies is crucial in ensuring communicative
competence. It has chosen the common modes of communication in an
organisational environment and endeavoured to demonstrate how the readers
can improve their communication by following the structures and formants
given.
I honestly believe that this book is not a magic ward that can be flashed to
eradicate all communication inadequacies. I believe that this book will give an
insight into how to write effectively the selected items like letters, reports,
minutes and speeches, but more importantly the aspects of language that are
behind effectiveness in all forms of communication. Perhaps more aptly,
though, is that the samples given will become a foundation upon which
practice will be built for improved and better communication results.
NABUTANUI EDGAR
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY, 2008.
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Chapter one
Introduction to communication
Definition of communication
Communication using verbal and written language is the single human
activity that is at the centre of human activity. It is believed by many scholars
as the most important and the only human activity that differentiates human
beings from other creatures. Though other creatures can pass to each other
different messages, this is at the most rudimental level and not as
complicated as it is among human beings when they use language.
Given the importance that communication holds among human beings, it has
attracted a lot of attention in terms of what it is and what it involves. The
starting point of the debate in understanding communication starts with the
definition of the concept of communication. The word communication is
derived from the Greek word ‘comunicare’ that is literary translated as ‘to
make common’ or ‘to share’. This means that communication is essentially a
form of interaction. From this root word, communication can be defined as
the process of transmitting information in form of data, messages and
instructions from one source to another.
Besides the rudimental definition of communication above, scholars have
provided many different definitions of the concept of communication. This
means that no single definition of communication is adequate to explain this
phenomenon. This is because different scholars define communication to
refer to different notions of the concept.
Among the outstanding scholars of communication are (Theodorson and
Theodorson 1969) who define communication as the transmission of
information, ideas, attitudes or emotions from one person or group of people
to another person or group of people. The key concepts in this definition are
information which refers to the exchange of knowledge and information. For
example if you write to some one a letter telling him/her that on a particular
day you are going to pay him/her a visit, you are communicating because you
are making them aware of an event or activity that they did not know before.
Idea in this definition refers to new concepts and thoughts. For example in an
organisation you may have a problem, therefore if you come up with a way of
solving that particular problem during a brain storming session, then you
have communicated.
Attitude and emotions go together and they refer to the feelings-either
positive or negative about a situation or a person that the individual has. For
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example if someone under your supervision does not follow instructions in
the execution of a task you have assigned him/her, you are likely to
reprimand such a person. When you do reprimand such a person, you have
communicated but what has been transmitted is your feeling of dislike
towards the person or task that was executed.
The other key concept in the above definition is transmission. It is one thing
to have ideas, information and emotion, but what is crucial is the transfer of
these from one point to the other. This essentially means that for
communication to take place there has to be two parties willing or forced by
circumstances to participate in the process. There has to be a sender-the one
with information and the receiver- one whom the information is meant for.
There has to be need for the sender to send and the receiver to receive. In
this case communication is any process of getting a message from the source
to its intended recipient.
Another important scholar to consider is (Osgood 1957) who defines
communication as a situation where one system-the source influences
another- the destination, by manipulation of alternative symbols which can
be transmitted over the channel that connects them. The key concept in this
definition of communication is manipulation of symbols, normally of a
common language with the purpose of influencing the behaviour of the
other party. For example when one winks or writes a note to someone, he/she
has manipulated the linguistic resources at his/her disposal to make someone
respond to him. The response is the evidence of successful manipulation of
the other party.
This means that Osgood’s definition brings to communication a clear concept
that Theodorson and Theodorson’s definition is lacking. The point of
reference is that all communication is purposeful. It is not just a matter of
transmitting messages but those messages must influence the party they
have been sent to. This means that on the reception of the message, the
recipient must change his/her behaviour and attitude as a consequence of
the message that is the subject of the communication process.
(Garbner 1967) defines communication as a social interaction through
messages. Garbner improves upon the definitions and general understanding
of communication by introducing the concept of interaction. This means
that communication is an end and not a means to an end. Ultimately the
function and importance of communication is the facilitation of human
interaction. When one makes a speech at a wedding party for example, such
a speech is among other reason a manifestation of social interaction. In other
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words, communication enables human being deal with or relate to other
human beings.
From the above definitions of communication, the following concepts become
very crucial in the understanding of communication. These are sender,
channel, message, receiver, effect and context in which communication
occurs. To the above six, one could add encoding and decoding as equally
important in the understanding of communication. It is important to analyse
each of the concepts listed above in terms of its relevancy and importance to
the process of communication.
In the communication equation, the sender refers to the party from whom
the communication is initiated. He/she is the person who starts the
communication process. The reasons as to why he/she initiates the process
are as varied as the different senders in the communication process. The
reason could be passing over information, giving directives, making inquiries
or socialising.
The channel is another important concept in communication. It refers to the
outlet or form through which the message is transmitted. It is good to have a
message, but this message is useless unless it can be transferred to the
intended party. To ensure that the message reaches the intended audience,
it must be transferred through an appropriate channel. The sender must
consider the most appropriate channel to use in the sending of the message.
The practical issues are always to do with whether the use of verbal or non
verbal, oral or written forms in communicating. The message determines the
best channel to be used given the message being sent and the reasons why it
is being sent. What is important though is the choice of the channel has an
impact on the effectiveness of the message.
The receiver is another important concept in communication. This refers to
the person or a group of people for whom the message is intended. In a lay
man’s language, the receiver is the audience that is targeted by the
communication intervention. In other words the message is designed and
sent to specific person(s). The receiver/audience is important in the
communication process because they determine the type of message and the
channel to be employed as well as other nuances that are necessary for
effective communication. For example, the type of audience determines the
language to use. If you are communicating to the unread, rural people in the
case of Uganda, using Oxford type of English will be useless because the
audience will fail to understand the message.
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In the communication process, the concepts of encoding and decoding are
equally important. Encoding refers to the translation of the message into a
language or codes that the sender thinks will transmit the message
effectively. For example the English word ‘thanks’ has many equivalents. It
could be ‘merci’ in French, ‘dankens’ in German, ‘webale’ in Luganda and
‘asante’ in Swahili. Any of the above expressions does express the emotion of
thanks or being grateful. Encoding calls on the sender to choose the most
appropriate symbols given the channel available to him/her and the nature of
the audience. If the audience is non-French speaking, it is useless to use the
French equivalent of the word ‘thanks’ and if they are blind writing it down
will be useless as well.
Decoding is the concept that is on the reverse side of encoding. It refers to
the ability of the audience/receiver to interpret and understand the message
that has been sent to him/her. In other words there is need for the principle
of double coincidence between the sender and the receiver. In the end what
matters is that the receiver should understand exactly what the sender
wanted him/her to understand. For this to happen, the receiver must use the
linguistic and non-verbal resources at his/her disposal to decipher the
message.
Models of Communication
After the definition of communication, it is important to look at the models of
communication. A model can best be defined as the simplified description in
graphic form of a piece of reality. It seeks to show the main elements of any
structure or process and the relationship between those elements. For
example in communication, models help us understand the relationship say
between the sender and the receiver and what other elements that are
involved in the communication process such as channel to mention but a few.
(Deutsch 1966) notes several advantages of models in the social sciences in
general and communication in particular. In the first place a model plays an
organising function by ordering and relating the systems to each other thus
providing us with the images of the wholes that we might otherwise fail to
perceive. It gives a general picture of a range of different particular
circumstances.
Models also help in explaining, by providing in simplified way information
which could otherwise be complicated or ambiguous. This enables us to
understand the key points of a process or system of communication. For
example communication is complicated to explain but with the use of a
model, it is easy to highlight the main components of the process and how
they relate to each. The case in point is that when the sender communicates,
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there has to be a message and a suitable channel for the message to reach
the receiver or the audience.
The third advantage of a model is that it can enable scholars of
communication predict outcomes or the course of events. It is the basis for
assigning probabilities to the various outcomes and forming hypothesis of
what may or may not occur given a set of conditions. For example models will
help us predict if communication has taken or failed to take place in a
situation where one gives a speech in a very noisy place. If the noise is an
impediment to communication, if a speaker finds himself/herself in such an
environment, then what is he/she supposed to do to ensure that he/she
communicates effectively.
There are two categories of models. These are: those that describe the
structure of the phenomenon. These are known as structural models. For
example the model may describe how the telephone works and nothing else,
by showing the main components of a phone and how these components
relate to each other in the communication process. The other types of models
are known as functional models. These describe the systems in terms of
energy, forces and their direction, the relationship between parts and the
influence of one part on the other parts. For example, a model that explains
that noise interference affects the effectiveness of communication is a
functional model.
It is true that models are useful in the study of communication but in using
models to explain the process of communication, one should beware that
they are sometimes incomplete, oversimplified and involve some concealed
assumptions. This means that there is no model that is suitable for all
purposes and levels of analysis of communication. Therefore, one should
choose a correct model for the purpose he/she is trying to study.
Some Basic Models of Communication
Below some common models of communication are discussed and analysed.
Note, though, that the models discussed below are not exhaustive in any
way. The discussion is a sample of some of the common and relevant models
in the process of communication that most people are likely to come across
or use during their professional or social lives.
Lasswell’s Transmission Model
Lasswell, an American political scientist put forward a convenient way of
describing the communication process by suggesting five key questions to
ask and to be answered about the communication process. These are ‘who’
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says ‘what’ in which ‘channel’ to ‘whom’ and with what ‘effect’. The questions
are graphically represented as
WHO WHAT CHANNEL WHOM EFFECT
This could also been shown as below
RECIEVER EFFECT
COM MESSAGE MEDIUM
NOTE:
(Braddock 1958) found the Lasswell model useful but somehow simplistic.
This prompted him to make adjustments by adding two more aspects. These
are:
i) The circumstances under which a message is sent. This includes the
conditions under which the communication event takes place. For
example the consideration of the physical and emotional conditions
in which the communication is to take place. Take for instance an
angry mob, is not likely to be reasoned with because it is emotional
charged and any attempt to do so will fail. In a similar way if one is
to communicate to a crowd in an iron-roofed hall while it is raining,
such an activity may not deliver the anticipated results because of
the interferences from nature. Therefore, the circumstances under
which the message is sent are crucial to the successful delivery of
the message.
ii) The other aspect that Braddock identifies is the purpose of the
communicator. What does the communicator wish to achieve by
engaging in the communication process? The purpose or intention
of the communicator is crucial to the way the message is
structured. For example, a communicator whose intention is to
persuade will construct his/her message differently from that who is
simply reporting. The purpose determines what is and how it is
said. The incorporation of the above aspects improves the model as
shown below.
Under What Circumstance?
For What Purpose?
With What Effect?
WHOM
WHAT MEDIUM
WHO
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The relevancy of the model to the communication process includes the
following:
The Lasswell (Linear) model of communication assumes that the intention of
the communicator is to influence the receiver. Hence the primary function of
communication according to Lasswell was persuasion. It should be noted that
the model exaggerates the effects of communication which explains its
propaganda usage in political communication.
The model omits the element of feedback. The assumption that the speaker
is central to communication is erroneous since the audience is critical in the
process of communication. This means that for the communication process to
be fruitful, the audience must put in its input in the process.
The Shannon and Weaver Model
This model was developed by the mathematician Shannon in collaboration
with Weaver, under sponsorship of the Bell Telephone company. The
research that these two scholars carried out was supposed to evaluate how
the message and communication for that matter was affected by external
factors.
The central questions that guided the study were what kind of
communication channel can bring through the maximum amounts of signals
and how much of the transmitted signal can be destroyed by the noise and
other interferences between the transmitter and the receiver.
Their research concluded that external interferences such as noise had a
greater impact on the amount of the message that reached the intended
audience and suggested that for communication to be effective there was
need to minimise the external interferences.
The model that they developed was linear and took communication as a one
way process from the speaker to the receiver. The model states five functions
to be performed in communication and one dysfunctional factor which is
noise. The model is shown in the figure below.
The Shannon and Weaver Model
MSG SGN SGN MSG
Information source Transmitter Receiver Destination
Noise Source
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As pointed out earlier, the model states five functions to be performed by
communication. These are the information source that produces a message
or a series of messages to be communicated. After the messages have been
created, they are then formed into signals by the transmitter. These should
be adapted to the channel leading them to the receiver. The function of the
receiver is the opposite of that of the sender. The receiver reconstructs the
message from the signal. After this has been done the message then reaches
the destination. However, the message is hostage to interference in the
process.
Shannon and Weaver highlighted noise as the most significant interference to
the message. In other words, the less amount of noise in the process the
more likely that the message will reach the destination without any distortion
and the reverse being true-that is the more noise in the process, the less
likely that the message will reach the destination as it was intended by the
sender.
This practically means that in the process of sending a message, if there is a
lot of noise, the message constructed by the sender and reconstructed by the
receiver will not have the same meaning. The core assumption of the
Shannon and Weaver model is the fact that the message sent and that
received are never identical. This means that the communicators should pay
attention to those factors like noise that are likely to distort the message to
ensure that the effects of these on the message are minimised.
Defleur’s Model
(DeFleur 1966) improved on the Shannon and Weaver model by discussing
the correspondence between the meaning produced and that received. He
notes that in the communication process meaning is transformed into a
message which in the process of transmission becomes information and
passes through a channel. The receiver then decodes the information as a
message which is then transformed into meaning.
He argues that if the sent and received meanings are similar, then
communication has taken place. He notes though that the correspondence in
the two meanings is rare, therefore, the need for communicators to be
careful in the communication process to ensure that what they send is
actually what is received.
(DeFleur 1966) adds another set of components to the original Shannon and
Weaver model to show how the source gets feedback which helps the source
to ascertain whether the message reached in the first place or to improve on
the process of the transmission to ensure effective communication. For
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example if you are talking to someone and he/she say “Pardon me.” “Pardon
me” is a feedback which tells you that your message has not reached its
destination and if you are to resend that message you will definitely change
either the channel or the model of delivery.
(DeFleur 1966) adds an important aspect to communication with is feedback
that means that communication is only complete if the audience
communicates back to the source, thus making communication a
transactional process and not linear as the earlier scholars had assumed.
DeFleur Model
Mass medium device
Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination
Noise
Destination Receiver Channel Transmitter Source
Feedback Device
Osgood and Schramm Model
(Schramm and Osgood 1952) originated a model that countered the existing
models that assumed communication was linear. That is to say that the
communication process moved in a straight line from the sender to the
receiver. Schramm and Osgood came up with a model that was circular since
their main assumption was that what were keys in the communication
process were the behaviours of the main actors in the process-that is the
sender and the receiver.
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Osgood and Schramm Circular Model of Communication
Message
Encoder
Decoder
Interpreter
Interpreter
Decoder
Encoder
Message
This model treats the sender and the receivers as equals performing identical
functions that is decoding, encoding and interpreting the meaning from the
information that is transmitted from each end. In other words, what the
sender does while sending the message is replicated by the receiver and in
turn the receiver sends a feedback that goes through the same process as
before.
This model breaks with the misleading conception of communication that
separated the roles of the sender and receiver and assumed communication
was a process that started at a particular point and ended at another
particular point. It assumes that communication is an endless activity where
senders and receivers act as switchboards handling and rerouting an endless
current of information.
The importance of this model is that it helps in describing the interpersonal
communication which is anchored on the concept of feedback. In cases where
the communication is between an individual and another individual or an
individual(s) and a group of people, such communication is complete only
when there is an interaction between the sender(s) and the receiver(s).
The possible short comings of this model are that it assumes equality
between the sender and the receiver. In reality communication is unbalanced
with one centre having a lot of power, resources and time to communicate.
For example when the head of department is talking to those employees
under his control, the power he has over them determine how they
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responding. Sometimes those who assume that they have little power in the
communication process may feign understanding and thus send a false
feedback because of fear.
Newcomb’s ABX Model
It is a simple representation of the dynamics of communicative relationships
between two individuals but can be applicable to complex relationships such
as attitude change, opinion formation and propaganda.
(Newcomb 1963) builds on the work of the psychologist Heider who theorised
that in case two people had an attitude of like or dislike towards each other
and towards an external object or person, some pattern of relationship will
exist. Newcomb’s assumption is that communication plays an essential
function of enabling two or more people maintain an orientation towards
each other or towards an object of an external environment. In other words
the model explains who and why we communicate with other people.
The model takes the form of a triangle the points of which represent the two
parties and the external object where communication is seen as the process
that supports their orientation to the structure by transmitting information
about and from the external object. In simple words, communication occurs
when the two parties relate with each other to the external object.
Newcomb’s ABX Model
x
A B
Newcomb further argues that communication is likely to occur under the
following conditions. These are a strong attraction between the two persons,
when the object is important to at least one of the persons or the object has
joint relevancy to both the persons. For example the First Year University
Students in any university will meet on the first day as strangers but at the
end of the semester they may have become best of friends. What brings
them together is the external object, the university (facilities and lecturers)
or a liking they have of each other.
The relevancy of this model to communication is the assumption that people
are likely to engage in communication processes that provide information
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that is consistency with their views, attitudes and perception of the universe
or use the process to seek for information that supports their behaviour and
general perceptions.
The model also holds that there is always selectivity of what communication
process to engage in as the underlying motive are the expectations of the
individual person. People will always be biased towards those communication
experiences that reinforce their existing opinions, attitudes and behaviours.
For example one person will pass by a religious crusade and go to a political
rally and the reverse, because each of the communication process reinforces
different opinions or attitudes.
Note though that it is not good to generalise that the tendency to consensus
is the only cause and effect of communication. For example people form new
relationships and get in touch with divergent views in the world. In this
process they form new alliances and develop new perception of reality.
Riley and Riley Sociological Model
The (Rileys 1959) criticised the traditional view of communication as a
process that took place in a vacuum. They argue that communication is part
of the social structures and their model attempts to portray communication
as one of the social systems among the many in society. Their criticism of the
traditional view of communication was based on the traditional view of
communication assuming that the communicator’s intention was to influence
the listener and the message acted as stimuli. The assumption that the
receiver would react to the message in a vacuum was what they objected to.
They reasoned that the receiver reacted to the message using the
psychological and sociological reference points in his/her society.
Riley and Riley Sociological Model
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Primary Primary
Group Group
Primary Primary
C R
Group Group
Larger SS Larger SS
OVER­ALL SOCIAL SYSTEM
KEY
C=Communicator R=Receiver SS=Social Structure
They argue that people respond to any communication as a result of the
influence of those people who are intimate to them. These, they called the
primary groups such as friends and family that help people define attitudes,
values and behaviour. For example if one comes from ‘a born again family’,
such a person may not be receptive to secular music simply because his
realm of socialisation biases him/her aganist such forms of communication.
They further point out that the primary group is part of a large group that like
the family or friend influence the person and is in turn influenced by a larger
group(s). For example, the family may in turn be influenced by their church.
The large influencing group is referred to as the reference group.
They further argue that the primary and reference groups do not operate in a
vacuum; they are too influenced by the larger society in which they live. This
means that both the communicator and the receiver in a communication
process are shaped or influenced by the social environment in which they
live. The sender is influenced in the way he structures, selects the medium
and shapes his message for effectiveness and the receiver is guided by the
group in how to select, perceive and react to the messages. This means that
the two parties are connect in the communication process to the
large/primary societies or groups to which they belong.
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The significance of this model to the study of communication lies in the fact
that it suggests that communication should be seen as a social process and
not occurring in a vacuum.
It also highlights the point of influence in communication. It is not only the
message that has influence. The receivers as well as the communicator are
both influenced by the society one in structuring what to send and the other
in analysing what has been sent.
This model also puts the role of mediating or helping factors of psychology
and social norms at the front of analysing communication. These factors have
an impact on how individuals and members of groups communicate and react
to messages
The Katz and Lazarssfeld Two Step Flow Model
This model emerged out of the study of communication effects on the public.
Prior to the study there was an assumption that communication and most
especially the mass media messages were key in shaping the political
choices of and the formation of the opinions of the masses. However, the
assumed influence of media and communication was found to be limited. This
meant that the message of a communication to have an impact had to pass
through another source for interpretation. The second centre is composed of
the opinion leaders that interpret the message for the masses.
The assumption that the message needed to be interpreted to the masses by
a source that is knowledgeable lead to the creation of a two-step flow model
of communication and information transmission. This model is based on the
following assumptions.
The first assumption of the two-step flow model is that individuals are not
socially isolated but rather members of a social group and this group has an
impact on how they perceive the message that is communicated to them. In
other words, the people we interact with have a bearing on how we perceive
the messages that we come across. For example if you came across
information about contraceptives, your appreciation of such information
depends on your priest who is an opinion leader.
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The Katz and Lazarssfeld Two Step Flow Model
Communication
/Message
KEY
Opinion leaders
Followers
Note
That the response and reaction to the message is not immediate but is
influenced by the social relationships. That is to say, any opinion that one
may hold as a result of the message communicated depends on the people
that the person interacts with. These determine whether the message will be
taken positively or negatively.
That two processes are involved in accessing the message. One process is to
do with reception and the other with acceptance or rejection of the message.
All these processes depend on the influence that the receiver surrounded
with in the process of receiving the information. All of us have at one time or
another thought that a specific piece of information was good only to change
that opinion after talking to our friends or family.
The individuals are not always equal in the communication process. There are
those that actively receive the information and pass it over to others and
those who receive the information from the first group. The first group are
the opinion leaders and the second the influenced group. The opinion leaders
are the ones that get the most from a communication process and are usually
more knowledgeable.
As much as the model emphasises the fact that communication takes place
in a social context, it is nevertheless misleading. In reality, the people are not
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divided into active and passive and sometimes the perceived opinion leaders
can equally be influenced by those who they are supposed to influence. The
other criticism is the fact that the mediation of the message does sometimes
take more than two steps that the model prescribed.
The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis Model
This model holds that communication and sometimes the media informs
some segment of the population in a society, usually those in the high socio-
economic class better than the other classes, especially those of a low socio-
economic status. Over time, the society has two classes of people-one class
which is well informed and the other which is less informed. This means that
the communication creates a knowledge gap between the two classes.
Therefore, a situation arises where this gap grows wider between the two
classes.
A Closing Knowledge Gap Model
Privileged
Access to
Information &
Knowledge
Less
Privileged
TIME
Non-Closing Knowledge Gap Model
Privileged
Access to
Knowledge
&
Information Less Privileged
TIME
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This model is credited to Donohue and others in their study of a society in
which the media and its use can play an important role. It is based on the role
that the media plays in society and this role is to inform the public as a
prelude to taking sound decisions that affect their lives and community.
The main assumption of the model is that in any society, preferably a small
one, there exist knowledge gaps. This essentially means that certain groups
in a society are ignorant and others are informed. This assumption is double
edged. On one hand it is bad to have ignorant and informed groups, and on
the hand it is good. It is bad because a section of the society is not informed
enough to participate in the civic and democratic decisions. However it is
good because the ignorant have apathy to participation, which leaves the
informed to make sound choices that benefit all in the end.
The model also postulates that depending on the issue, the gaps can be
bridged. This essentially means that if the issue is new, only a few, normally
from the upper classes will have information about it. However, over time the
other groups catch up. It also argues that the gaps are less obvious over
issues that all are interested in or those that affect all the people. For
example, during or at the start of campaigns, the informed have more
information but later on the assumed ignorant catch up.
Therefore, following this model, all segments of the society become informed
if the relevancy of that knowledge has been increased by an escalating
conflict or increased coverage of the issue. And as the knowledge gaps
disappear, so does the society get a solution to the problem.
The model has the following strengths. These include the definition and
explanation of gaps between groups in society, provision of means of
reducing the gaps and an assumption that the public is always involved in the
issues that affect them. The critical importance of the model to those
involved in the welfare of people in society is that helps in explaining the
gaps and calls for such professionals to structure their message in such a way
that all are reached and more importantly to create continuity as over time
even the ignorant acquire the information especially if it is important.
On the other hand, the theory has the following weakness. These include
limitation of the gaps to news and political related information, not
addressing the cause of the knowledge gaps and an assumption that the
gaps are bad in society when sometimes they are not.
Uses and Gratifications Model
This model comes up as a challenge to communication effects research in
terms of how people are influenced by the message. This model looks not at
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what communication does with people but what people do with the message.
It assumes that people consciously seek out and consume communication
content because these serve a purpose in their lives.
The Uses and Gratification Model
Resulting in
There are need
social and gratifications
Expectations
Differential
psychological
of
patterns of
origins
communicati And other
Needs which message
on messages consequences
generate exposure
which lead
It is derived from the work of scholars such as Lazarsfeld, Herzog and
Berelson. They argue that people use communication content for obtaining
gratifications or to fulfil a need. That is to say, if someone watches TV or
reads a newspaper, he/she is using that media to satisfy a need or an
interest, which might be a desire to know or to get entertainment. This
means that if people did not have use for the media as a way of gratifying
their desires, then, possibly they would not consume media content.
This model is divided into two camps the classical and the modern uses and
gratification theorists. Despite the labels, there is agreement as to what are
the main assumptions of the model. The model is concerned with the social
and psychological origin of needs that generate expectations of
communication to expose them to activities that will satisfy their needs and
generate other consequences. That is to say, that if one needs social
interaction, he/she is forced to read or watch TV that will give him/her
fulfilment to his/her needs but can make him/her dependant on the media
that he/she seeks out to gratify his/her needs.
The strengths of this model is that it explains how people use
communication, describe differences and similarities of different media in
terms of their functions as related to the needs and gratification basis,
assesses the satisfaction especially of children derived from the media,
functions of media to inform, interpret occurrences, ritual and giving prestige.
The weaknesses of the theory include the fact that it microscopic in analysis,
it is mentalist, assumes that the audience is fairly active, does not take into
consideration the content and it is a pretext of producing poor content on the
excuse that the content is filling a need.
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Diffusion of Innovations Model
This is a model of communication developed by E Rogers which establishes a
relationship between information and development. It is a modified version
of the two-step flow of information model. It assumes that when new
technological innovations are introduced, they pass through stages before
they are accepted. The stages are awareness, early adapters, opinions
leaders taking on the innovations and others encouraged to take on the
innovations and adapt change.
It holds that information is crucial in facilitating change or information when
defused, results into acceptance of innovations. It started with work with
farmers in the USA in the 1920 but it is now used in facilitating development
in the third world and involves agriculture, health and socio-political life.
The Rogers and Shoemaker’s Innovation Diffusion Model
Antecedents Process Consequences
Receiver Variables Continued adoption
1. Personal characteristics Adoption
2. Social characteristics Discontinuance
3. Perceived needs for 1. Replacement
Innovation 2. Disenchantment
Communication Sources
Channels
Knowledge Persuasion Decision Confirmation
I II III IV
Later Adoption
Social system Perceived
Rejection Continued
variables characteristic of
Rejection
innovation
1. Social system norms 1. Relative advantage
2. Tolerance of deviancy 2. Complexity
3. Communication integration 3. Triability
4. E.t.c 4. Observability
Time
This model is based on the assumption that behavioural changes are sought
by giving information and trying to influence motivations and changes to
ensure innovations. It involves four steps to bring about innovations and
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changes. These are exposition of the people to information so that they are
aware of innovations and gain insights in how it functions, then the people
are persuaded to form favourable attitudes to the innovation, which is
followed by individuals deciding to take on the changes or not and individuals
seeking reinforcement for the innovation decision they have made.
The strengths of this model lies in the fact that it helps people take on new
ideas that can improve their livelihoods, it favours development, takes into
consideration receiver variables- the need to persuade the people to accept
innovations and takes into account the use of many forms of communication
to facilitate the changes.
The weakness of the model include the fact that it is paternastic-implies the
existence of a superior –know all person who decides what is good for others,
it is linear in organisation-therefore does not take into account other factors
in the process, decision making does not always take the predictable manner
that the theory suggests, there is a sense of randomness in decision making,
therefore knowledge is not always necessary and does not provide an avenue
for feed back.
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Chapter Two
Types of Communication
Introduction
Communication can be best analysed in terms of levels or the broad social
context in which it occurs or operates. This specifically means that the
context-that is the place, the purpose and the people involved in the
communication event determine how it is shaped, develops and achieves its
specific purpose. For example, two neighbours talking about the weather and
an administrator addressing a staff meeting have different aims to achieve,
will use varied linguistic resources to achieve these aims and will structure
their messages and transmit them through different channels. This means
that even if the same people are involved in different communication
experiences, the different experience will determine how they communicate.
Among the levels of communication is the inter-personal level of
communication. This is the type of communication that takes place between
two or more people. It is usually face to face and the topics of discussion are
drawn from their everyday experiences. The type of communication between
work mates at work or husband and wife at home or parents advising their
children at home qualify as inter-personal communication. The main
characteristic of this type of communication is that it is face to face and as
such the communicator is not strained in communicating. The other
characteristic is that there is immediate feedback as the responses and
reactions of the receiver are there for the sender to see. In other words, the
communicator can know for sure whether his/her message has been
understood or not. It should be noted that inter-personal communication also
uses the verbal channel at most times, though occasionally the written forms
are employed.
The second level of communication is the small group communication. As the
name suggests, it is the communication between small groups. It is hard to
define a small group but it could be roughly three to ten people, though even
more than ten people could constitute a small group. The main characteristic
of this type or level of communication is the limited number. The limitation is
normally associated to the aspects of life that unite them. For example, co-
workers in a staff meeting qualify as a small group communicating. The other
characteristic of small group communication is that all members are equal in
status and if there are differences of title and rank, it is minimal and as such
all participate equally in the communication. It should be noted that inter-
personal communication and small group communication are similar because
they employ the two-way communication model where there is interaction
between the sender and the receiver of the message through the use of the
feedback loop.
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The other level of communication is the large group communication. As the
name suggests, this is the type of communication that takes place among
many people. Many people could be hard to quantify, but on average you are
looking at more than twenty people engaged in a communication event.
Large group communication is characterised by the existence of too many
people. Therefore, the speaker is addressing many people normally from
different backgrounds. For example a pastor preaching on Sunday, will be
talking to rich, poor, women, men adults and children. The other related
characteristic of large group communication is that participation is limited.
Supposing you have one thousand people in a hall, it is inconceivable that all
of them will be allowed to talk. In any case some of the context that brings
about large group communication, like church services, political rallies,
musical concerts to mention but a few, do not allow for audience participation
and feedback. Lack of audience participation also means that this type of
communication employs the one-way models of communication that do not
allow for feedback. This type of communication assumes that the audience
need the information from an expert source and therefore have no input to
make in the process.
The other level of communication is known as public or mass communication.
This is the type that involves one source that communicates to a large
audience-hence the name mass communication. The communication takes
place through impersonal channels like newspapers, television, radio and of
late the internet. It should be noted that the audience for mass
communication messages are undefined and anonymous. The concept of
Mass communication is best defined by looking at the two words that form
the word. These are ‘mass’ and ‘communication’. Mass refers to many and
communication is defined as the process of transmitting information, data or
knowledge from one party to the other. Therefore in a layman’s language,
Mass Communication is the transmission of information for a large, normally
of diverse characteristics, group of people.
McQuail (2005:17) defines Mass Communication in terms of mass media,
which he says is:
The term mass media refers to the organised
means of communicating openly and at a
distance to many receivers within a short time of
space.
This means that Mass communication is a way or a process of communicating
to many within a limited frame of time and space. For example a news
broadcast of an international radio station like BBC which can reach millions
of listeners instantly is Mass Communication.
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McQuail’s definition of Mass Communication is to a larger extent in
agreement with that of Baran and Davis (2003:10) who define Mass
Communication as:
When an organisation employs technology as a
medium to communicate with a large audience,
Mass Communication is said to have occurred.
Using the example of professionals at The New York Times, they show that
Mass Communication for all purposes and intents-despite a few points of
contention like reception of personalised information or generating
information out side the organisation, is about the delivery of information to
many people unrestricted by distance and time. From the two definitions of
Mass Communication by McQuail, Baran and Davis, it is clear that Mass
Communication is an important field of social organisation and scholarly
pursuit.
The other interest in the levels of communication is to do with how the
information moves within an organisation or society. To this effect there are
three levels of the flow of information in any organisation. These include, up-
down flow, down-up flow and lateral flow of information. The up-down flow of
information is the situation where information flows from the top of the
organisation-for example from the CEO of the company down to the lowest
ranked member of the organisation either directly or through other
subordinates. It is used by managers of an organisation to:
1. Assign goals and duties to their employees. For example, the CEO will
write a memo to the production manager to the effect that having
secured a new firm to supply their goods, production must increase
and possibly by what units. Such a correspondence comes directly
from the top down to someone response.
2. Giving instructions and specifications is also best done using up-down
communication flow. For example a foreman can pin a duty rota on the
notice board instructing every one what to do and how to do it for the
staff’s notice. This is because if people are allowed to debate what
they are to do and how they are to do it, nothing will get done.
3. Up-down type of communication is used to inform members of the new
policies of the organisation. Management can decide that the cause of
low productivity in the organisation is late coming. After their meeting,
they can communicate this to the workers in form of a new policy.
The channels most used by this type of information flow include memos,
letters, notices and bulletins. [These forms of communication are handled in
the later section of the book.]
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The other type of the flow of communication-especially in an organisation- is
the down-up ward communication. This is where the information flows from
the lower levels of the organisation to the top management. This allows for
the lower cadres of the organisation to communicate to the managers of an
organisation. It involves the provision of feedback, information on the
progress of the tasks and bringing to the notice of management the current
problems that the organisation is experiencing. It is also a mechanism
through which management is made aware of the current feelings of the
employees to the issues that affect their productivity.
Down-upward communication employs some of the following techniques in
the transfer of information. Attitude surveys are one of the methods used.
This involves management sending out a questionnaire or hiring outside
consultant to research on the feelings of the employees about the conditions
under which they work. It is important to note that an outside consultant is
likely to get better results for management to act on than an insider as the
employees will feel free and open to an outsider than someone perceived as
an extension of management.
Reports are another technique employed in the down-upward flow of
information. This is when management commissions an official to investigate
a problem in one of the sections of or the entire company. For example if the
productivity of the workers suddenly dips, management can task the
production manager to find out why this is the case. After doing his research,
he is expected to write a report. This report is an avenue of information flow
from the lower levels to the top managers.
The grapevine is another avenue through which information can flow from
the bottom to the top. The grapevine is an informal mechanism through
which management has eyes and ears among the workers. These confidants
of management regularly report to management the mood and attitude
among the workers and such information informs the actions and decisions
that management takes. It is actually a formalised rumour mill that
management depend on.
The value of such a form of communication flow is that it filters information
for the managers. This because the employees may be intimidated by the
bosses and fail to say what the real problem is. But among themselves, they
will be open and candid and therefore the boss who uses the grapevine gets
the real feelings of the workers. It also acts a feedback mechanism through
which the manager gets information on almost everything from office
romance to conflict in the organisation. Such information is crucial in the
decision making process of the organisation.
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On the negative side, the grapevine can create conflicts in the organisation.
The confidant may be motivated by self interest and ends up spreading
misinformation about others or so that he is the good books of the boss. If
such malicious and inaccurate information is used to make decisions, then
wrong people will be victimised. Related to the above is lack of control on
what information the confidant of the boss brings to the attention of the boss
and also an atmosphere of fear is created where everyone assumes that the
next person is the spy for management. In such an atmosphere, the
organisation can not prosper.
The third form of information flow is one that is termed as lateral
communication. This is the type that takes place among peers in an
organisation. For example when the human resource manager directly
communicates to the financial officer, such communication is among people
of the same rank without passing through the top managers.
Such communication flow is useful because it cuts the red tape in an
organisation which sometimes hinders performance. For example, if the
human resource manager writes a memo to the financial officer about the
availability of funds so that he/she can hire more employers, such a measure
will be quicker and efficient than when he/she writes to the MD, who in turn
writes to the financial officer who responds to the MD and then the MD writes
back to the human resource manager. By the time the communication chain
is complete, a lot of time and consequently productivity of the organisation
will have been lost.
This mode of information flow in an organisation is also good because it
creates co-ordination among the different heads of section in the
organisation. Such co-ordination can improve productive in the organisation
and improve on the efficiency among the workers. This is because actions are
taken quickly.
On the negative side though, lateral communication can create unnecessary
conflicts when formal channels are abused. For example when some officers
are jumped, they can feel unappreciated and may deliberately slow the
process, especially when top management refer to them for implementation.
The bosses may feel insecure if certain actions are taken without their input
and knowledge which can lead to conflict, malice and intrigue which can
affect the productivity and efficiency of the organisation. It could also create
conflicts and cliques in an organisation that can have an adverse effect on
the productivity of the organisation.
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Another level or classification of communication has to do with how it is
produced. From this perspective there is oral and written communication.
Oral communication is that type that depends on the manipulation of vocal
organs to produce sounds that have meaning to the intended audiences. The
advantages of oral communication are that it is rapid in the sense that the
message is delivered instantaneously. That is to say once the communicator
speaks, the audience listen, understand and take in the message at the same
time. The other related advantage is that there is immediate feedback. That
is to say the audience respond to the message there and then. Because of
feedback it is easy to make corrections and adjust the structure and content
of the message that make the message more effective. This also eliminates
any distortions that are associated with transmission and environment in the
communication process.
Written communication is the type that relies on graphic and graphetic
symbols and signs in transmission of the message. Written communication
takes many forms. These include, handwritten, typewritten and currently the
internet. The advantages of written communication are that the message is
tangible in that the receiver can have the message physically in his/her
hands as evidence that communication has taken place. The other advantage
is that written communication is durable. This means that the message can
be stored and retrieved for use at a latter day. Written communication is of
advantage because it allows for the communication of complex issues such
as legal provisions. It also allows for careful consideration of and correction
and arrangement of the message.
The shortcomings of written communication are that it is time consuming.
The time spent in drafting and sending the message to the recipient is long
compared to oral communication. This means that there is no immediacy in
the message and sometimes the message can be overtaken by events. For
example, if you wrote a letter and posted, it may take a week to reach the
recipient when oral communication like a telephone takes less than a minute
to transmit the same message. It does not allow for immediate feedback as is
the case with oral communication.
The other level of communication is the non-verbal. This is the type where no
word is used in the communication process but communication takes place
through the use of paralinguistic features such as gestures, facial expression
and silence to mention but a few. For example when someone asks you for
something and you shake your head that signal a negative response and the
person will understand you-sometimes better than if you had said no.
Likewise when someone keeps quiet during a talk, the silence is
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communicative feedback that could mean he/she is upset, dissatisfied or
thinking about the subject.
Types of Non Verbal Communication and Their Use in Communication
Non-verbal communication is sometimes referred to as body talk/language.
This means that someone can communicate without speaking or writing but
by the movement of the body. Non-verbal communication is useful in a
communication process because it sometimes arguments or compliments
oral communication. For example if someone says yes while nodding the
head, the nodding emphasizes the message being transmitted. It also
encourages oral communication in the sense that it compliments oral
communication for effectiveness. The fact that a non-verbal sign can have
different meaning can be a blessing and a curse. A blessing in that the
speaker can easily hide meaning from those who are not familiar with the
gesture or body language and curse in the sense that difference meanings
can lead to misinterpretation of the message sent especially if the audience
interprets the message differently from the sender.
The following are some of the ways in which body language of kinesics of
body communication works. One of the ways of how body language can be
used in communication is facsics. This called facial communication to
whereby facial actions are coded into messages. For example a gloomy face
communicates anger, smiling face happiness, a frowning face surprise or
thinking to mention but a few.
The other aspect of body language is ocalics. This is communication using the
eyes. The eyes can be used to send any message to anyone watching the
person. For example a twinkle of an eye would mean that someone is
planning something mischievous, laughter in eyes could mean that someone
is happy and so on.
The third aspect of body language is gestics. Gestics refers to the use of body
movement to communicate. The movements of the body can communicate a
multitude of messages such as mood, status, affiliation, ethnicity and
identity. For example when someone kneels to greet, the kneeling indicates
respect, when someone embraces another person, it is a sign of affection and
if two people are walking, the one of a higher status walks ahead therefore a
demonstration of who is more important than the other.
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Gestures are the other type of body language. Gestures are defined as the
movement of the hands and the head specifically to send a message. The
gestures are either speech independent in the sense that they can
communicate on their own for example a nod means agreement or speech
related in the sense that a gesture is accompanied by words. For example if
someone says while nodding, then the nod is a speech related gestures.
Gestures are divided into four sub groups. These are emblems the type of
gestures that have direct verbal translations for example the language of the
deaf where each gesture has a corresponding meaning such as the circular
movement of the hand means all.
The illustrators are those gestures that are used to aid verbal messages for
example if someone says bring it here while the hand is pointing where the
item should be put, the point is an illustrative gesture. The regulators is the
gesture that is used by the audience to act as a feedback for example when
one listens while nodding the head, it means he/she is following, is impressed
or agrees with the speaker while the shaking of the head means the listener
is not impressed.
The adaptors are the other aspect of gestures. This is a type of gesture which
shows adaptation to the communication situation. For example if someone
has a blank expression on the face during a speech, it will mean that he/she
is not bored by the speech or can not follow what the speaking is talking
about.
Affection displays are the other forms of gestures. This is where a movement
of the face communicates a message. For example is someone winks, the
person is attracting the attention of someone or indicating that he/she
understands what the other person is saying.
Haptics is defined as the use if touch to communicate a message. This is a
type of body talk where the contact between the sender of the message and
the intend audience is a transmission of the message. For example hugging
means affection, love, welcome or happiness and kissing means greeting or
love and a handshake means welcome. It should be noted that haptics is
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culture and gender specific. This is because a hug may mean affection in one
culture and intimacy in the other.
The physical characteristics of the person communicating play a role in the
transmission of the message. This involves the attractiveness in the sense
that attractive or good looking people are responded to positively when they
communicate in most occasions. The body size of the person is equally
effective in communication. Short and small people are not taken as seriously
of those with an imposing figure. In fact most effective speakers in history
have been people of big statures. The same applies to height. Tall people are
likely to be effective communicators. And in a similar way women are in most
case considered to be less effective speakers than men.
Proxemics is another aspect of body language. It is defined as communication
using space. During a speaking occasion, people then to use space to
supplement their delivery. The space around the speaker expands and
contracts according to ones emotional state, cultural background and
intentions. For example if a speaker moves closer to the audience, it makes
him closer to them. Therefore, the way the speaker exploits the aspects of
social, physical, personal and intimate space can enhance his effectiveness.
Paravocalics is the use of vocal effects to accompany the words in oral
communication. It involves the tone of voice, the speed of speaking, the
volume, pitch, pause and stress in a speech. These aspects have a way in
which the reinforce the message of the speaker. This is because they add
meaning to the words of the speaker. For example when someone speaks at
a high speed, it shows that he/she is either excited or angry. On the other
hand people who are angry tend to be loud and a pause will indicate
emphasis.
Chronemics is the use of time to communicate to ones self or others. Time is
conceived as circular, linear, formal or informal. Following circular time
means that one is not under pressure to stick to time. Time in this case
depends on seasons, day and night. For example at night people in Africa told
stories because the stories did not competed with other activities. Linear time
is when each activity has got a specific time slot and therefore the speaker
ensures that he/she sticks to the time allocated to him/her.
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Olfactics is the use of smell as a means of communication. The way someone
smells can affect whether he/she communicates effective. For example
imagine listen at close quarters someone who has bad body smell or breath.
The way someone smells can have an impact on whether people listen to
him/her attentively.
Artiactics refers to the ornaments that the speaker has on during the speech.
Personal items like clothing, jewelry and make up have an impact on the
effectiveness of the speaker. A well dressed speaker will most likely draw the
audience’s attention than one who is shabbily dressed.
Function of Communication
As pointed out in the introduction, communication is the most important
activity that distinguishes human being from other beings. This is because
communication plays very many important functions in society. These
functions could accrue to individuals or to a group or to the entire human
society. For example, when your friend in another university or town writes
you a letter, he/she is communicating and in so doing is adding value to your
life by telling you of what you do not know. Like wise when you listen to a
public service announcement on how to prevent cholera on a radio,
communication is saving your life and probably that of your community. The
following are some of the functions that communication plays in a society.
1. The most important function of communication is educational. This
means that communication is used to educate. For example when you
watch a TV documentary on wildlife or when you read a book from a
library, you are qualitatively and quantitatively improving your life.
Through communication, people come to learn new things that
improve their lives for the better.
2. Communication also enables people to search for and receive
information. This could be facts, data or figures. Such information
obtained gives satisfaction by creating awareness of and
understanding social, political and economical realities. The
information received especially from credible sources can be used by
the receiver in many different ways to improve his/her life.
3. The other function of communication is that it provides entertainment.
Communication tends to be attention arousing and gives pleasure to
the people accessing such information. For example, reading a novel
or watching a movie is some of the means that people use to get
entertained. Therefore, the radio, TV, newspapers, theatre, oral
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performance, the internet and other forms of communication are used
by people to make them happy and avoid boredom. By entertainment
we mean, an event, performance, or activity designed to give pleasure
or relaxation to an audience (McQuail, 2000). Examples of
entertainment include: music, films, movies, sports, soap operas,
comedies, cartoons, horoscopes, graphics, colour pictures etc.
Entertainment performs various roles in society including motivation
where entertainment media provides specific ways to satisfy
psychological needs, relaxation by providing users with a variety of
opportunities to be amused, to have fun and pleasure, to be
enlightened and delighted, in short to be entertained (Vorderer, 2000)
and education where entertainment forms of drama, dance or music
are used to portray certain messages to achieve a particular causes
(Zillmann, 2001).
4. Another function of communication is that it is used to give and
receive instructions. The messages sent may give people tips on how
to perform a certain task or achieve a certain activity. For example
when one reads a map on a journey to unknown place, the map will
give him/her the instructions of how to reach his/her destination.
Likewise someone who watches or listens to a cooking programme on
radio or TV will get tips on how to prepare a particular meal. In this
case, communication has not only provided such people with
information by also instructed them on how to use that information.
5. Communication also plays a persuasive function in society. According
to The Persuasion Handbook: Developments in Theory and Practice,
persuasion is a symbolic transaction, which uses reason and/or
emotional appeals in an attempt to alter behaviour. Persuasion is
thought to fall short of direct coercive force, though the threat of
coercion is often present. Both persuasion and coercion attempt to
change the behaviour of "others," but they differ in their approach.
While coercion actively attempts to apply physical pressures to its
targets, persuasion seeks to convince a target to change its behaviour
(though persuasive messages may include threats of coercion). Thus
persuasive communication seeks to change behaviour without direct
force. For example when someone listens to a radio advertisement or
attends a political rally, both forms of communication will attempt to
influence him/her to change his/her behaviour or attitude towards the
objection of the communication
6. Communication is useful to an organisation because it is used to
control the behaviour of members in an organisation. The members
are informed of their mistakes through communication. At the same
time they are praised for their good performance again through
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communication. Those who do wrong when warned through a letter of
warning for example are likely to change and improve on their conduct
while those who do well and are complimented, are motivated to do
even better through communication. This means that the aims, goals
and plans of the organisation will be achieved and efficiency will be
realised since feedback is important to the members of an
organisation.
7. One of the basic functions of communication is that it fosters social
interaction. Whether in a group or individually people are social
animals and will always interact with each others. Therefore, when one
converses with a friend, asks for direction from a stranger or writes a
letter to the editor complaining about the poor social services the
government provides to his community, this form of social interaction
is made possible through communication. That is why it is believed
that without communication human life and existence would loose its
meaning.
8. For the case of an organisation and especially those members in that
organisation in management positions, communication facilitates the
decision making process. Any decision taken means that other
alternatives have been discarded. Therefore, to be sure that the
decision taken is the right one, the person taking the decision needs
information and data about all the alternatives to identify and evaluate
the best option to take.
Barriers to Communication
As it has been pointed out in the introductory parts of this book,
communication is usefully when the communication link between the sender
and receiver is maintained. If for one reason or another, this link is broken,
communication can not take place. Therefore, it is important for all involved
in the communication event to ensure that the link between the sender and
receiver is maintained. It is good to have ideas and information to pass over
to others, but quite frustrating is these can not be passed over effectively.
The question then, is what stops the sender reaching his/her intended
receiver in a communication event? There are many factors that can lead to
the breakdown of the communication link. Some are related to the sender
himself and other are outside his control. It is important to identify such
obstacles and find ways of minimising their effects and rectifying them or
reducing their effects as much as possible. The following are some of the
common barriers to communication.
1. One of the common communication barriers that occur without even
the knowledge of the communicators themselves is filtering. Filtering
refers to the tendency among the communicators to communicate
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what they perceive their audience want to hear. This means that they
edit and restrict what they are going to write or talk about in a given
communication scenario. This tends to be common where the
relationship between the sender and the receiver is that of a boss-
subordinate. The person of the lower rank will tend to say what he/she
thinks the boss wants to here. In the process the real message is not
delivered. The way forward should be that the speakers or writers
should be bold and tell the truths without sugar coating it because in
the end their honesty and candour will be appreciated.
2. Another barrier to communication is information over load. This is a
situation where the speaker or writer gives to much information. There
is a tendency among human being to believe that much is good.
Therefore, people will try to impress by giving too much information to
their audiences without gauging the ability of their audiences to
internalise the information they have been given. For example, there
are people who speak for 10 hours or write a one hundred page report.
In the case of the speech after one and half hours at the most, the
audience will be turned off and if the critical information of the delivery
comes at the end, then the bored audience will certainly miss it. In the
case of a one hundred page report the intended audience may not
read it, especially when they have other responsibilities and if at all
they do, they will simply skim or scan through the report. At the end of
the day the communicator has failed to communicate because of
information overload. The best policy should be moderation. Study
your audience and determine how much they can absorb and structure
your communication according.
3. The channel that one chooses to transmit his massage can turn out to
a barrier to effective communication. Like in the case of information
overload, the nature of your audience should determine the channel
that you use for the delivery of the message. A channel appropriate to
one audience may be inappropriate to another type of audience. For
example, with all its advantages, using the written channel to
communicate to an illiterate audience is self defeating. This is because
they can not read and therefore a message that requires them to read
is useless to them. Likewise if you decide to use a TV to communicate
health messages to a population that is poor, can not afford a TV set
and have no electric poor to operate the TVs, will be useless because
the intended audience will not access the information.
4. The communication link can be broken by emotion. The state of
emotion that both the sender and the receiver are in determines the
effectiveness of the message. The speaker or writer must be in a good
frame of mind to effectively communicate. Likewise the audience must
be in a good and receptive mood to fully understand the message. If
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for one reason or the other the parties are not in a good mood the
communication exercise will be useless. Take for example a person
suspected to be responsible in one way or another for the death of
someone to convince the mourners that he/she is wrongly accused of
being involved in the deceased’s death.[Professor Nsibambi at Dr.
Kiggundu’s funeral] However, good a speaker he/she is, he will not be
listened to because the mourners are emotionally charged. Therefore,
it is important to gauge the mood of the audience before you address
them on controversial subjects.
5. The other barrier to effective communication is source credibility. This
refers to the audiences’ perception of the speaker, either as
trustworthy or untrustworthy. This comes from the history the
audience has with the writer and speaker. If the speaker or writer has
consistently exhibited communication behaviours that the audience
find untrustworthy, the audience will find it hard to believe him/her
even if at this point his/her message is critical. Therefore, it is
important that if your job is to deal with the public, try to cultivate a
good image of yourself and the organisation you serve. It is only then
that the audience will take you seriously.
6. Language is another barrier to effective communication. Language in
communication refers to the choice of words to use in a speech or a
written text as well as the structures that are employed in the stringing
together these words to make the meaning clear. It is important for
communicators to gauge their audiences and decide on the type of
language that is appropriate to them. It is true that use of ‘big’ and
‘complex’ words and structures is impressive. However, the bottom
line is whether your audience can understand these words. It does not
matter whether the message is important and of benefit to the
audience, if the language used is hard to understand, the audience will
not benefit from the message. The advice to communicators is to use
simple words and sentence structures to ensure that all the people
understand what they are communicating.
7. The other barriers to effective communication are the physiological
conditions of the communicator. These are basically the physical and
psychological disabilities that the communicator possesses. For
example, if someone has got a bad handwriting or poor punctuation as
a result of the inability to read and correct his/her mistakes in a written
text, these will affect his/her ability to communicate effectively.
Likewise someone who lisps or stammers, will create difficulties for the
audience to follow his speech and him self to be coherent. Off course,
these are natural handicaps that the individual has no power over. In
other words you are born with them and there is nothing you can do
about them. Nevertheless, if someone is aware of such handicap,
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he/she should attempt to be relaxed if he/she is giving a speech. This
is because these handicaps are pronounced every time they are
agitated.
8. Communication is also affected by external factors. The most
significant is the environment in which the communication takes place.
The atmosphere should be conducive if the communication process is
to be effective. One of the factors that do interrupt communication
significantly includes noise. If the place in which the speech is taking
place is noisy probably because of traffic or rain, the speech will not be
wholly understood by the audience. If there is anticipation of natural
and environmental disturbances, the speaker and the organisers
should plan and employ technological innovations to counter the
disruptive effect of nature. The use of public address system could be
useful in this case.
There are possibly other barriers to communication that have not been
discussed in this section. However, the barriers listed above are the most
common and frequently challenging ones. Therefore, all communicators
should be aware of what can hinder the message reaching the intended
audience and devise means to reduce on the impact of these barriers on the
effectiveness of their communication.
Language and Style in Communication
There is a strong relationship between language and communication. This
because language is the vehicle through which communication takes place.
In the study of communication, it is important to understand language. Henry
Sweet defines language as the expression of ideas by means of speech
sounds that are combined into words and words into sentences. The
combination transforms the ideas into thoughts.
The key words in the definition above are ‘expression of ideas’, ‘speech
sounds’ and ‘combination.’ Expression of ideas in the definition refers to the
ability of language to act as a means through which ideas, information and
data is transmitted. The phrase speech sounds refers to the manipulation of
the vocal chords to produces sounds that have meaning to facilitate the
transference of messages from one point to the other. These sounds can only
make sense when combined in a particular order. For example, the words
‘man’, dog’, ‘chasing’ ‘is’, ‘the’ and ‘a’ as isolated units carry no meaning.
When combined, for instance, “The dog is chasing a man.” Then meaning or
sense is created. The list of words expresses no thought but a sentence
which is a combination of words does.
Bernard Bloch defines language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by
which a social group interacts and co-operates. The key concepts in the
above definitions are arbitrary vocal symbols, social groups and interact and
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co-operate. By arbitrary, Bloch means that the there is no connection
between the symbols and the object they represent. This means that it is
society that decides what an object will be referred to by and the reference-
the name of the object- is accepted in society. Social groups emphasises the
point that language operates in social groups. It is these social groups that
decide the linguistic rules and meaning given to certain words to mention but
a few. Interact and co-operate calls for the sense that all languages are
purposeful and play certain functions in society. The primary functions of
language are to facilitate interaction and co-operation among people.
George L Trager defines language as a system of symbols and signs that
enable communities relate to each other. Trager’s definition is to a large
extent similar to Bloch as they both define language as a set of symbols that
enable human being to interact. This means that language is very crucial to
human interaction and communication.
Another school of thought- namely the pragmatists argue that language only
serves the purpose of the intended user. If the primary purpose is to
communicate, then meaning is attached to the word specifically to
communicate what the user wants it to communicating hoping that the
intended audience will understand the meaning.
The key characteristics and functions of language in human communication
include the following. One of the major aspect languages is that a normal
person acquires language in childhood. This is the ability to make use of the
language as a speaker or listener. This explains the fact that children learn
languages faster that old people, mainly because they are predisposed to
acquire the language easily.
The other aspect of language is that it is primarily a system of vocal
communication. As much as language can be written and there are other
forms of communication like non-verbal language, the foundation of all
languages are the vocal symbols that are created by the manipulation of
certain organs like the throat, mouth and the lips as the air moves out of the
lungs. This essentially means that ideas are first conceived vocally before
they can be translated in writing or any other form of communication.
Language is primarily used to impart information, express feelings or
emotions, influence others, and confront people with varying degrees of
friendliness and hostility to other people. These should be people who use or
understand the same set of vocal symbols. When language is used to impart
information it is said to factual. When it is used to influence others, then is
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persuasive. Therefore, it is plausible to argue that the purpose to which
language is put by the user determines its perception.
It should be noted that different systems of vocal communication make up
different languages. That is to say when one set of vocal symbols is different
from another, it means that the two are different languages. For example Luo
and Luganda. In the example above, a Luganda speaker can not understand
a Luo speaker. This is because the sounds systems and rules used in Luganda
are not the same as those in Luo. There are cases when there are differences
but all the same the members of the language sub-groups can understand
each other. In this case, these become dialects of the same language. The
differences between individual speakers of the same language are called
idiolect. The important thing is that languages differ within and without. This
means that there are always varieties of the same language.
Though other species like animals do use sounds to communicate to each
other, human language is different because it is infinite in terms of
production and creativity. The animals have limited sounds that they can
produce and even then the meanings associated to particular sounds are
limited. Human language is unrestricted in terms of what it can be used to
refer to.
The Development of Language and Communication
It is believed that human life would be impossible without language. This is
because language is very important in communication which is the core of all
human existence. For this reason, since man started to live in societies, they
have been interested in the use of language for communication. Over the era
of human civilization, different use of language for communication has been
developed.
As a result of the functions of language in society, at different eras of human
civilization different forms of language use in communication have evolved.
Along side the evolution of language has been different theoretical
explanations. These include the divine theory of language. This is based on
the Biblical/Jewish tradition that holds that God created language for human
beings to communicate with him through worship and naming the creatures
that God had created. [Genesis] However, when human beings misused
language-specifically their attempt to reach heaven by building the tower of
Babel, God decided to create many languages since a single language had
prompted human beings to challenge God. [Genesis] The other version holds
that after Christ had ascended to heaven, his apostles were given many
languages to enable them spread the gospel to the different corners of the
world. At the core of the divine theory of language is the assumption that
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language was created specifically for human beings to do God’s work.
[Matthews]
Apart from the Jewish/Biblical divine theory of language as a tool of
communication, there are other two divine theories of language. These are
the Norse myth that holds that god Thor participated in the creation of
language. The other myth holds that it was god Odin who was responsible for
the creation of the rynic alphabet. The Norse theories explain the verbal and
written forms of language in communication.
The Indian myth/theory is similar to the biblical and the Norse theories in the
sense that it also holds that a god known as Indra is said to have created
articulate speech. The Arabs also believe that language is divine as it was
given to the patriarchy Adam in the spoken form and to Prophet Muhammad
in the written form as the holy Koran. In both cases language is a tool used
by the faithful to commune with God and perform his deeds on earth.
Plato in Cratylus using the Socrates monologues argues that the gods were
responsible for first fixing names of things in the proper way. The written
form of language according to the Greek was brought to Greece by Cadmus
who came from Phoenicia and founded the city of Thebes. The language
brought by Cadmus specifically refers to the consonants and vowel sounds as
well as the symbols that form the core of the Greek alphabet.
Johan Gottfried von Herder in the ‘Essay on the Origin of Language’, attempts
to find the actual forms and structures of language. He concludes that spoken
language came first and was followed by written language that started about
4000-5000 years ago. The transformation of language from the spoken to
written must have been necessitated by the civilization considerations like
the need to keep records, the expansion of empires that required the centre
to communicate with the provinces and most importantly trade.
Herder and Condillac argue that human beings created language because
they were thinkers. They fitted words to the existing structure to enable them
express their thoughts through the signs and sounds that they had created.
This was the common belief in medieval Europe that maintained that things
exhibit properties which are understood by the mind so that they can be
communicated.
Human beings’ interest in language is shown by the amount of data that has
been collected throughout the centuries to explain the origin and structure of
language. In addition to the theories discussed above, there are the bow-bow
[the onomatopoeic theory]. This theory holds that language started as
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imitation of the natural sounds and cries and songs of animals as well as
natural sounds. This theory is supported by the source of some words such as
splash, hiss, mow etc.
The pooh-pooh [interjection theory] holds that language started as
interjections. The first words were words that indicated surprise such as oh!,
wow! Etc. this theory seeks the origin of speech in the cries of human beings
and other animals. It shows that language is derived from the mood of the
speaker. This assumption is true to some extent though human speech is
articulate while such a theory makes language inarticulate. The other theory
as the yeho-ho theory which is similar to the pooh-pooh theory only that it
includes the element of work related exclamation such as aahh! Aghh!
The Indian grammarians observe that the soul understand things with
intellect and inspire the mind to speak. There is also King Psammeticlus
experiment that created the bekos-bekos theory. This theory hold that
Phrygian in which bekos means bread was the first language. This is allegedly
because if someone is cut off from human language, that person will speak
this language so the experiment had proved.
The gesture or body-talk theory holds that speech originated from gestures.
The gestures are believed to have come before speech and as they
decreased, speech expanded. Human beings saw the need for speech
because gestures were limited by distance and darkness and therefore, they
could not be effective in communication.
Characteristics of Language
Human language is dual in structure that is it has phonological and semantic
properties. This means that human language is different from other types of
languages. It has several characteristics that make it different from other
types of communication. These are the following.
1. The first characteristic of language is that it is arbitrary. According to
Hocket, the absence of geometrical similarities between the sounds
and the words as compared to the objects and meaning they signify.
This is supported by de Saussure who states that there is no obvious
relationship between the signifier and signified.
2. Duality is another characteristic of language. Duality means that
human language can be organised at two levels. These are the
phonological and the grammatical on one hand. The phonological
refers to the sound based language and the grammatical to the
graphic or written based language. These could be reduced to the
written and spoken language.
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3. Productivity is another characteristic of language. This refers to the
ability of human language users to produce and understand an
indefinite number of utterances including even these both the speaker
and listener have never heard of or ever used. However, this is
possible because creativity in the application of the grammatical rules.
4. Discreteness as a characteristic of language refers to the ability of
human beings to choose words that can make their meanings clear.
For the case of animals, the sounds they use are limited. For example,
there is one meaning attached to barking and the other to whining for
the case of dogs.
5. Human language is interchangeable. This means that the roles of the
speaker and listener can be switched. A speaker can be a listener and
the listener a speaker. This is possible because both have the
competency to perform the roles referred to above. In human
language, someone can be both a speaker and listener at the same
time.
6. There is complete feedback in the use of human language. When the
language is used, it is monitored not only for audibility but also
comprehensibility and correctness. In human language, mistakes are
identified and corrected in the process of communication.
7. Human language has the characteristic of learnability. This means that
human beings have the ability to learn their own and other languages.
This is because of the structure of language. What one needs, is to
know the phonology and the grammar of any language they are
interested in.
8. Prevarication according to Hocket is the ability of human language to
either mislead or lie or misinform. Human beings can use language
deliberately to lie or mislead. This is not possible with animals because
each sound has a particular meaning and can not be manipulated the
way human language is often manipulated.
The History of Language and Communication
It is important to note that the origin of language is embedded in theory and
myth. All the explanations of language carry divine and intellectual
assumptions. Nevertheless, they all point at the power and diversity of
language. The text concentrates on the impact of the printing press during
industrial Europe on language and communication. This is based on the
assumption that the printing press lead to the start of modern
communication. However, human writing has got an interesting past and to
understand the present types of language as a means of communication and
more specifically writing, one ought to be familiar with the original types of
writing. All types of written communication, it should be noted are related to
the technological developments as explored below.
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1. Pictograms/ideograms are believed to be the first forms of written
language. This took the form of cave drawings such as those found at
Attamira in Spain drawn by human beings who lived at that time. They
are believed to be over 20,000 years old. They are portrayals of the
kind of life and activities that people at that time were engaged in.
Later these drawings were developed in such a way that each picture
is a direct image of the object it represents. This type of writing has
survived up to the present as seen in international sign language in
traffic signs and the directions in parks and public places. It should be
noted that there is no relationship between the language spoken in the
era and the images.
2. Cuneiform system of writing was developed by the Sumerian who
lived in Mesopotamia about 5000 years ago. These people were
traders and used clay tablets to keep their records. They left a 17
volume dictionary that scholars are translating. However, their form of
writing was a form of pictogram that was simplified and
conventionalised. The symbols were produced using a wedge shaped
stylus that was shaped in soft clay tablet. The symbol represented a
sound and an object that it resembled abstractly.
3. The Egyptians, another ancient people who lived on the banks of river
Nile developed heliographs system of language. This type of
language is translated as the sacred curving. The drawing represented
the sound or the word that it referred to. It was borrowed by many
people who lived at the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. These
included the Greeks who developed it into the modern alphabet that is
named from the first letter called ‘alpha’ and the last called ‘beta’. The
alphabetic system of writing is where sound systems are primarily
phonemic rather than phonetic.
4. The Book and the Library were the beginning of modern
communication. McQuail (2005:18) argues that: “The history of
modern media and communication begins with the printed book-
certainly a kind of revolution, yet only a technical device for
reproducing the same, or rather a similar...” This was because of the
invention of the printing press that produced cheaply popular and
religious books that were very expensive before then. This meant that
more and more people could read more especially when these cheap
books were translated from Latin to the different vernacular languages
of Europe. The critical importance of this development is that a book
became another commodity and as a commodity it had value. The fact
that a book was a valuable commodity, made it worthwhile for authors
to write and with the emergence of the new rich in Europe as patrons
of culture, Libraries were set up and with these two factors, the growth
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of literacy and development of mass media. The book and the library
as forms of mass media have endured time and are still important as
they were five hundred years ago.
5. Print Media started by the 19th century industrialisation had
developed in Europe and with it came the expansion of urban
population and consumerism. By its nature, consumerism is insatiable
and demanding. Therefore, the book, as a form of mass media, was
inadequate, because the large urban populations demanded regular
and instantaneous products. With this new development and advances
in technology, a new form of mass media emerged. This was the
newspaper. In fact earlier classical writers like Dickens, published their
novels initially as series to cater for this demand. McQuail (2005:20)
argues thus:
In a sense the newspaper was more of an
innovation than the printed book-the invention of a
new literary, social and cultural form-even if it
might not have been so perceived at the time.
The newspaper catered for the needs of the new class that was urban,
business and professionally oriented, because it was regular, a
commodity, with informational content, secular, free and serving a
public function.
The newspaper evolved with time to create three distinct types:
namely the political press which were published by the party to
organise, inform and create a sense of activism among its members.
The second type was the prestige paper for the elite class that had
emerged in Europe at this time. The third type was the commercial
newspaper, which operated as a business and dependant of
advertising revenue to ensure mass readership.
6. Film developed in the middle of the 19th century is another
technological novelty. This was the motion picture that as a mass
medium created a leisure outlet for the masses and provided the
working classes the cultural benefits of the elites. McQuail (2005:23)
argues that: “The practice of combining improving message with
entertainment had long been established in Literature and drama, but
new elements in film were the capacity to reach so many people.” The
above fact and the low price for this new form of communication and
entertainment, made it attractive to mass audiences, because of its
universal appeal and strong social control.
7. Broadcasting. Radio and Television both grew out of existing
technologies of the telephone and photography and with their advent
came a new era in communication. Their main characteristics that
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make them endeared to the masses are the large out put, range and
reach as well as diverse content that can reach mass audience without
restrictions of time and place. Despite heavy regulations of these
mediums, they have remained the most popular forms of
communication in the world.
8. Recorded Music. Another technological advance was the invention of
the phonogram and later the compact cassette and the compact disc
and more recently the DVD. These inventions have made it possible for
music to get to a mass audience.
Style and Communication
Style is that concept of communication that is usually misinterpreted because
of its common usage. In communication, style has about four senses. These
are the individual language habits of a person. This is basically about how an
individual uses language in a communication process. In this case one looks
at the individual language habits and usage of a person. This normally
reflects the person’s personality. For example there are people who use
complicated words in their communication; others speak with an accent while
others speak softly and yet others loudly. Therefore, the way a person uses
language in communication is that person’s style.
Style is also defined as some or all the language habits shared by a group of
people at a particular time or a period of time. This means that a particular
group for certain reasons and in a given context will use language in a
manner that is distinct from other users of the same language. For example
in the 1500 the English used words like ‘thy’ ‘thou’ ‘thine’ and many others
that are quite unintelligible today. From this perspective one can argue that
that was the 16th century style of English. Another case is the use of
euphemism among the Baganda and the apparent openness among the
Bakiga. These too are their style of language usage.
The third definition of style is known as impressionistic style. This refers to
the impression or the evaluation of a communicators’ usage of language.
Whether the piece is spoken or written, those who come across it will make a
judgement to the effect of whether it is good or bad. For example, the late
President of Uganda Dr. Milton Obote was considered a great speaker and his
greatness arose from his effective style especially in his choice of words-
allegedly some of which did not exist in the English language. The current
President is also an inspirational speaker because of his use of vernacular
and local proverbs. One could say the gentlemen referred to above have
effective styles of communication. Ultimately, style explains why some
communicators are boring and others interesting.
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The fourth definition of style is purely literary. This looks at the variations in
the written and spoken language. It looks at the regional variations,
variations according to class and profession. For example the language used
while welcoming a visitor is quite different from that used will at a funeral or
in church.
Styles of Speaking
All normal individuals and communities communicate. However, they use
several styles of speaking within their language. Styles of speaking refer to
the modes of expression one takes or adopts in a communication event.
Given the subject and context of the communication, speakers are likely to
change how they speak, meaning that a specific style is chosen to fit with the
occasion. The following are some of the main categories of styles of speaking.
Note that these are also applicable to writing.
1. Informal/Intimate Style is a manner of speaking or writing that is
characterised by a high level of intimacy and closeness between the
two parties. This is a type of style associated with friends, relatives and
other forms of acquaintances. The communication process is relaxed
and words and addresses are normally informal and casual. It is
common to use slang and other forms of informality.
2. Casual Style is similar to informal style only that it is common within
groups of people who either by association or profession share certain
characteristics. They are not friends but by the nature of their life
styles spends a lot of time together and as such the social distance
between them is reduced but not to an intimate level. They are either
acquaintances or colleagues which make them share certain linguistic
characteristics. This type of style is characterised by usage of slang
and ellipsis that are understandable to the addressee while other
listeners might not understand what is being discussed. In fact it is a
language or style of a sub group within a large linguistic group.
3. Consultative Style is that type of style that is neutral or unmarked.
This is a style where the speaker is obliged to supply background
information that he assumes the listener needs in order to understand
him/her. Joss argues that good consultative style is where a sense of
cooperation is created without necessarily creating integration. For
example, a patient seeking medical attention, a student seeking
technical information from a lecturer or a politician campaigning or a
conversation between a lawyer and his/her client will certainly
establish a rapport that is limited to the issue at hand and nothing
more.
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4. Formal Style is a more advanced form of consultative style where the
social distance between the addresser and the addressee is wide. The
language is characterised with formality where special form of titles
are used in the course of the address. This style is characterised by
detachment and the burden is upon the speaker to state the business
that has brought him/her as soon as possible so as to end the
interaction.
5. Frozen Is that type of style commonly associated with print and
declaration kinds of communication. The communication situation does
not provided for interaction between the sender and the receiver and
the two parties remain strangers throughout the process. It is common
in legal and ritual kinds of communication and its hallmark is the use of
passive language.
Evaluation of Style
It is important to have the tools necessary for the evaluation of style if one is
to be a great communicator. The evaluation should include the speaker’s own
style and that of others with whom he communicates. There are basically five
levels of stylistic evaluation. These are the following:
1. Semantic which refers to the meaning of the text whether oral or
written arising from the total text and the individual word used by the
speaker. Attention should be paid to euphemism, figures of speech,
imagery, slang, punning and other forms of deviational use of
language. The meaning does not lie in the words used but rather in the
manner how they are deployed. For example in religious language
when Jesus uses the word neighbour in the parable of the Good
Samaritan is used not in the literary sense of the word but to mean
someone who is caring.
2. Lexical is about the patterning of words in the construction of the
communication to bring out the meaning of the communication.
Attention should be paid to the way sentences are constructed for
effect. For example the long sentences are used in legal language for
clarity, the starting of every verse with a capital letter in religious
language to mention but a few.
3. Graphetic refers to the physical arrangement of word and other visual
effect in a text to enhance its meaning. It involves the size of letters
used and the colour and contrast generated in the text. For example
the use of images and colour as well as shapes of lettering in
advertising, the huge headlines and columns in news papers to
mention but a few cases.
4. Phonological parameters of evaluation are mainly associated with
spoken or oral texts. The attention is paid to the sounds are organised
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to create effect and enhance the meaning of the text. Attention should
also be paid to the tone and intonation as well as the rhyme and
rhythm of the text. For example the emphasis of alliteration and rhyme
in advertising, intonation and cumulative description in religious
language.
5. Grammatical refers to the use of different parts of speech in the
construction of the text. For example the constant use of conjunctions,
inverted, double structures, clichés, and old English in religious and
legal language and the omissions of words in headlines and use of
ambiguous sentence in journalese.
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Chapter Three
Writing and Communication
What is Writing?
Writing-sometimes referred to a literary communication- is one of the most
important skills that are employed in the field of communication. It is defined
as the art of communicating through written symbols. In this literary world
writing is of paramount importance. It eases the transfer and exchange of
information from one person or one source to another. It also makes the
storing of information without straining one’s memory. It involves the
reading, recording and analysing the written material. It is important to note
that written communication largely depends on the ability of the
communicators to read and write. It involves the use of newspapers, books,
letters, reports and journals.
With the invention of the printing press during the industrial revolution,
literary/written communication has become more available and largely used
in public communication. The information that was previously transmitted
orally is now transmitted through the written form. For example in medieval
Europe, it was the priest who read the bible to the people but today everyone
can read the bible for him/herself. This has also been made possible by the
increase in literary-especially the UN MDGs of universal primary education
access to all children in the world. However, the challenge to writing is the
new audio-visual technologies that have attracted people from reading and
writing.
People write for various reasons. Sometimes we write to ourselves for
example note taking and making during lectures or meetings. In such
situations we the writers are at the same time the audience. When the writer
is his/her own audience the burden of communicating effectively is relatively
small.
However, in many cases writers write for different audiences and with
specific communicative objectives in mind that they want to achieve. To get
the desired goals there is need to have the necessary skills in writing. This
entails abiding by certain principles to ensure that the communication link
between the writer and the reader is not broken.
There are a number of things that can break the communication link between
the writer and the reader. These include:
1. Poor Punctuation is where the writer may fail to punctuate his text
adequately. He/she may use the punctuation marks without any
justification, use the wrong punctuation marks and sometimes not use
them at all. The scenarios pointed out above makes it difficult for the
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readers to make sense of the writer’s ideas and consequently the
communication link is broken.
2. Ordering of ideas is another area that always leads to the breakage of
the communication link between the writer and the reader. The writer
may fail to present his/her ideas in a manner that makes sense to the
reader. He may start with an idea that would have come last and vice
versa. He/she may fail to be precise or straight to the point where it is
supposed to be made.
3. Relating idea is another weakness that the writers should look out for.
The communication link is broken when the writer fails to relate his/her
ideas properly. This is in most cases due to the inappropriate use of
linking words and phrases like though, besides, however and many
others that show transition within and between ideas.
4. Irrelevancy and repetition is another weakness that writers should
watch out for to ensure that the communication link is maintained.
When a text contains ideas that are not relevant to what the writer
wants to express, it becomes a turn off for the readers. Inadequacy of
ideas and improper use of words are the main causes of this problem,
therefore, writers are cautioned to prepare and cross check their work
before they put pen to paper.
5. Poor choice of words (diction) to use is another frequent cause of the
break down of the communication link between the writer and the
audience. Always but the audience in mind when choosing words to
use and choose those words that are appropriate and those that will be
understood by the audience that you are writing for. It does not pay to
go for complicated words when a simple one can do. Sometimes some
writers fail to get the right terminologies and end up being bombastic
for no good reason. The writer needs to know that clarity is more
important and unless he/she can not help it, simple words should be
preferred to the complicated ones.
6. Spellings are another problem that writers have to watch out if they
are to communicate effectively. It is true that the English language
authography is very complicated. But then this should call for caution
on the part of the writer. This is because a simple change of a letter
changes the meaning of the word and hence the entire meaning of
what the text intends to communicate. Remember that there is no
relationship between the way words are pronounced and the way they
are written. Therefore, all writers should take care on how the spell in
their writings. For example the words ‘thought’ would not carry its
meaning if the write omit the /t/ at the end. Instead it becomes
/though/. If this is put in the sentence such as’ I though he came
yesterday.’ The meaning is completely lost.
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Basic Guideline for Effective Writing
Effective writing calls upon the writer to be much organised in the process
that he/she is engaged in. Always the use of the simplest construction and
style to convey the basic facts and ideas is the way forward. According to
Graham Hart effective writing should follow the following basic guidelines.
1. Avoid complex words where the simple ones can do. Short common
words which are easy to understand and read should form the basis of
effective writing. Using complex words makes writing more
complicated to understand and may also sound old fashioned and
pompous. Long and complex words should be restricted to technical
terms or names of places. The guiding principle should therefore be
the use of a simple word when a simple word can do.
2. At the level of a sentence, it is better to use simple sentence
constructions with the key points coming first. The writer should
always aim to get the main point quickly in a sentence and to make
the meaning clear as soon as possible. This can be achieved easily by
using simple sentence constructions.
3. It is important to make sure that as many sentences as possible are
self-contained. This means that each sentence should work alone
without needing the preceding or following sentence to set it in context
for it to be understood.
4. Writers should avoid the use of passive sentence construction as much
as possible where active sentences can do. It is advisable that the
writer should always be looking for the most direct and or active form
of the verb. Active verbs make the writing more dynamic and easy to
understand.
5. To write effectively, one should try as much as possible not to mix the
forms. This means that if you are writing; decide on using either the
formal or informal types of writing according to the communicative
situation. The writer should also attempt not to mix the written and
spoken forms of the language. For example, when writing a letter of
application, do not use the informal opening of ‘Hi?’ Instead use ‘Dear
Sir/Madam’ as the situation may require.
6. The other issue that writers should pay attention to is punctuation.
Well punctuated sentences or paragraphs are easy to read and follow.
Therefore, if one wants to be an effective writer, he/she must
understand the use of at least the common punctuation marks and use
them effectively. It is irritating to read a 200 word sentence or a one
page paragraph. As it is to you the writer, so it is to your readers. Such
readers will decide not to read what you have written, if it is hard to
follow.
7. Writing in English is problematic because of the nature of English
language spellings. Therefore, whoever wants to be an effective writer
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must learn how to spell correctly English language words. They should
not write words as they are spoken. This is because the English
language has queer pronunciations and spellings. For example, the
words, ‘though and rough’ all end with /gh/ but this is pronounced /zo/
in ‘though’ and /fu/ in ‘rough’. This means that if one attempts to write
them as they are pronounced, he/she will end up with completely
different words.
8. All the problems associated with writing arise in most cases because
the English language is a foreign language to most of the people who
use it to communicate. This means that they are not familiar with the
spellings and sentence structures of the English language. On top of
that the interjection of the mother tongue spellings and sentence
structures make the problem even worse. The way around this
problem is that all writers who want to be effective must get familiar
with the English language. They should do this through reading widely.
If they have access to different type of reading materials, then they
can get access to the spellings of different words and a variety of
sentence structures that they can use in their own writing.
Punctuation and Its Impact on Communication
The main purpose of punctuation is to make the writer’s full and exact
meaning clear to the reader. This is by helping to show the relationship
between groups of written words. In order to ensure that the reader gets the
meaning intended for him/her by the writer, these punctuation marks must
be used well and according to acceptable standards. The writer must
understand the significance of the various symbols of punctuation. He/she
must use these symbols in conformity with the practice of reputable and
careful modern writers.
In general punctuation involves the appropriate use of capital letters or
capitalisation, appropriate use of commas-the most frequently used and
troublesome, full stop, semi colon, colon, dashes, hyphen, question mark,
exclamation marks, parenthesis, quotation marks and paragraphing which
involves the separation and arranging of ideas and thoughts in a logical
order.
Use of Capital Letters
The English language alphabet and indeed almost all other alphabets in other
languages have got two sets of letters. These are the upper case commonly
known as capital letters and lower case letters commonly known as small
letters. For effective writing, the writer should use the capital letters well. He/
she should note the following.
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1. The capital letters should mark the beginning of thoughts or a
sentence in a prose type of writing. Capital letters should be used at
the beginning of lines in poetry.
2. The other use of capital letters is to indicate the personal names of
individual members of a class. In general capitalisation should be
governed by the following guidelines or rules.
i. Capitalise the first letter of the word of a sentence except in a
parenthetical sentences. A parenthetical sentence is a sentence
within another sentence separated from the main sentence by
brackets and dashes.
ii. Capitalise words and phrase that are understood as sentences.
These include words that stand alone as sentences such as Yes. ‘Al
right’ ‘Certainly.’ When these are standing independently as
sentences in the text, they must be capitalised.
iii. Capitalise the first letter of the word of a direct quotation. The
reason for doing this is because the direct quotation introduces a
new thought or idea quite different from the main sentence which
carries it.
iv. Capitalise the first word of a formal question or the answer
following a formal announcement. This is because both the question
and answer introduce a new idea or thought.
v. Capitalise all proper nouns and derived adjectives that come out
from them. A proper noun as opposed to a common noun is an
individual name of a person or a place. Proper nouns that should be
written by an initial capital letter include the name of people, place,
races, tribes, citizens, deity, creeds, confessions, the sacred books
and names of notable events and periods of history, names of
educational institution, departments, courses and planets. Note that
the following nouns are not capitalised. These are earth, sun, moon
unless they are personified. To personify a noun is when the writer
deliberately gives such a noun human qualities.
vi. Capitalise the title preceding the names of a person and
abbreviation used after the name. The title used as a substitute for
a name is also to be capitalised. For example is the person’s name
is Mukasa and he has got a PhD, then his name should be written
as: Doctor Mukasa.
vii. Capitalise the important words in the title of a book, magazine or
the title of an article in a book or newspaper. For example the title
of this book should be written as: “Communication Skills for Life.”
Note that the ‘f’ in ‘for’ is not capitalised because it is not an
important word in the title.
viii. Capitalise the words denoting family relationship when they
precede the name of a person or when they are used alone for an
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individual person. For example when referring to Musisi who is your
uncle: he should be addressed as Uncle Musisi. However if the
relationship denoting word is not followed by the name, then it is
not capitalised as the case below shows. “I went to visit my uncle.”
ix. Capitalise names of specific places and proper adjectives formed
from names of special places e.g. “North Avenue, Kampala Road.”
x. Capitalise names of buildings, institutions, monuments, businesses
and organisation. For example, “Barclays Bank, Workers House,
Makerere University etc.”
xi. Capitalise names of months, days of the week, holidays and special
events. For example, “Monday, May or Christmas.”
xii. Capitalise names of ships, trains, planes, space shuttles, political
parties, government agencies, departments and courses offered at
universities or colleges. For example, “Literature, The Conservative
Party, MV Kaawa etc.”
However, under the following cases it is advisable not to capitalise. The
direction of the compass unless they denote a political or geographical entity
should not be capitalised. For example north, east, south and west are not
capitalised unless it is North Korea, East Africa, South Sudan or West Africa.
Names of seasons-such as winter, spring, summer and autumn-are also not
capitalised as well as names of courses and subjects of study.
The Comma
Commas are perhaps the most crucial punctuation mark to use. This is
because they allow the writer to extend the length and expand the content of
the sentence. As much as they are important, they happen to be the most
difficult of all punctuation marks to learn to use properly. It has several uses
that include the following:
1. It is used to separate items in a list. When used like this the comma
provides simple pauses in the sentence often doing the job of ‘and’ or
‘but’.
2. The comma is used to separate parts of dates. For example, “March
14, 1978.”
3. Commas are also used to separate a person’s or company’s name from
the degree, title or affiliation that follows it. For example, “Kiggundu
Joseph, PHD.”
4. Commas are used after the salutation and the closing of both friendly
and official letters. For example, “Dear Betty, or Yours faithfully,”
5. It is used between an adverbial clause and the main clause. An
adverbial clause is that clause that adds a description to the main
sentence to give it colour or more meaning. For example a comma
must be used in the following sentence. “When the sun is shining and
the crops are growing, the world seems a happier place.” The main
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clause or sentence in the above sentence is, “The world seems a
happier place.” Whose meaning is improved by the adverbial clause
that gives conditions to use when to judge the world as a happy place.
6. The comma can also be used after a verb less phrase or a non- finitive
clause at the beginning of a sentence. For example, “To be sure of
getting there on time, she left an hour early.” The verbless clause
normally acts as an explanation for the action of the main sentence.
Like in the example above, the action of the subject is to leave early
and the reason for leaving early is not to be late.
7. It is used to separate an introductory or transitional phrase such as
however, by the way, for instance, on the other hand and many others
from the main ideas or contradictions in the sentence.
8. The comma is also used before an independent clause or phrase that
interprets a sentence. For example, “The fire, although it has been
burning for several days, it is still blazing fiercely.” The phrase,
“although it has been burning for several days” is an independent
phrase which is not part of the main sentence but which adds light to
the main sentence.
9. Commas are also used before and after a non-defining relative clause
or a phrase used purposely to add more information about the noun of
the main sentence. For example in the sentence, “The institute, which
trains policemen, is situated in Masindi.” The clause, ‘which trains
policemen’ adds more information to the institute and as it is not part
of the main sentence, this fact is indicated by the use of a comma.
10.It is also used to separate a question tag or a similar word from the
rest of the statement. For example, “Mary was here, wasn’t she?” or
“Shut up, will you?”
When two commas are used in a sentence, they become paired commas. A
paired comma is used when a noun of direct address interrupts a sentence.
For example, “I think, Paul, that you are wasting your time with that girl.” The
paired commas are also used in transitional or parenthetical expressions that
interrupt the sentence. For example, “We stayed, nevertheless, until the
game had ended.” The paired commas are used with contrasting expressions
when they interrupt the sentence. For example, “Obote, not Museveni, fought
for Uganda’s independence.” The paired commas are used to enclose non-
essential phrases, clauses or non-essential appositives that interrupt a
sentence. This are expressions with or without, the sentence still makes
sense. For example, “Paul, panting and exhausted, collapsed in the sitting
room.” The same sentence written as: “Paul collapsed in the sitting room”
would still make sense.
The Colon
Like the comma, the colon is one of the problematic punctuation marks to
use. This is because it almost does the work done by the comma and the
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semi colon and as such it is hard to know for certain when to use it or the
other marks. Nevertheless, the following are some of the exceptional cases
when it should be used.
1. It should be used to introduce a list of items in a sentence. For
example, “Peter went to the market and bought the following: onions,
oil, soap, sugar, salt and soda.” It there fore signals that a list- a fairly
long one- is about to follow.
2. It is also used when introducing a fairly long or important quotation.
For example in the sentence below the president’s response is not only
fairly long but equally import. “When asked about the economy, the
president had this to say: ‘The economy has been growing at the rate
of 6% for the last twelve years.”
3. It is also used before a clause or a phrase that explains or illustrates
the main clause of the sentence. For example, “The garden was
neglected for a long time: it was overgrown by weeds.”
4. It is also used to separate chapters from verse numbers in reference to
the bible, hours from minutes, and in American English to end the
salutation of an official letter. For example, “Matthew 2:10 or 3:30 this
afternoon.”
The Semi-Colon
It is said to belong somewhere between the comma and the full stop. In other
words, they are said to be more that commas but less than the full stops.
They are used to mark a significant break in a sentence normally separating
two but related ideas. For example, “We have been exporting fish to the EU
for two years; this year we expect the USA to be our largest importer.”
The semi-colon is also used to separate items in a list where it is desirable to
show some kind of grouping. For example, “The chief export are; butter,
cheese, milk; lamb, beef, pork; oats, barley and wheat.” Note that each group
or type that is animal products and cereals is separated by a semi-colon.”
It is also used to separate an independent clause not joined by a coordinating
conjunction when the clauses are closely related. For example, “Irene never
eats fish; she is allergic to it.” It is also used between independent clauses
when the second clause begins with a transitional expression such as ‘still,
moreover, furthermore, otherwise, therefore, however, besides, in fact and
for example.’ For example, “Last night’s storm knocked out the power lines;
as a result, the whole of Kampala was in a blackout.” It is also used in an
independent clause when commas appear within the clause. For example,
“Irene bought books, pencils, rubbers and pens; but forgot books, writing
pads and ruled paper.”
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It is also used to separate items in a series when one or more of the items
contain a comma. For example, “The awards read Paul, first place; Kenneth,
second place; and Suzan, third place.”
The Full Stop/Question Mark/Exclamation Marks
Like the capital letter, these punctuation marks are very important in a
sentence. This is because a group of words are not considered a sentence,
question or an exclamation statement without starting with a capital letter
and ending with a full stop or a question mark or an exclamation mark. If
these marks are not at the end of the sentence then for all purposes and
intents, it is an incomplete sentence. Although it seems obvious, in practise
they are always overlooked.
When ending a sentence always use:
1. Full stop
2. An exclamation mark to show surprise or to add emphasis to the
statement.
3. A question mark which should come the end of an inquiry regardless of
whether it is a direct or rhetoric question. The only questions that do
not need a question mark are the indirect questions.
4. The full stop is used with many abbreviations such as Dr., Ave., U.S,
B.C, i.e., Capt., Mr. Etc.
The Hyphen
The most important work of a hyphen is to make words easier to read. It does
this in two ways. In the first place, it is used to separate a word into two parts
between the end of one line of a text and the beginning of the next line.
Dividing words in this way is not recommended. Where possible it should be
avoided. However, when such divisions are unavoidable it should be made at
the most natural point in the structure of the word. For example the word
‘structure’ should never be broken into ‘st’ and ‘ructure’. To ensure that the
break is done at the right place two rules must be followed. One of the rules
is the American practise where the word is divided into syllables and in this
case the word ‘structure’ would have to syllables-‘struc’ and ‘ture. The British
practice uses the morphological rule or the etymological rule. For example
the word ‘structure’ would be broken at ‘struct’ and ‘ure’. Note that in most
words the two rules give the same results.
The hyphen is also used to visibly link words that are bound together in their
meanings. In this way hyphens are used before prefixes and affixes such as
‘neo-colonialism’ to mention but a few. They are also used in some compound
words that need to be brought together for example, ‘an 18-year-old boy’.
The hyphen is used to link all prefixes with proper nouns for example, pre-
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Columbian, pro-American etc. The hyphen is used to link parts if a compound
adjective when it precedes a noun. For example, “a well-known writer, a high-
paying job etc.” It should also be used to link parts of a fraction that is used
as an adjective. For example, “one-half acre of maize, two-thirds of the
class.” It is also used to link parts of a compound number. For example,
“sixty-three shillings, forty-seven weeks.
The Dash and the Parenthesis
These are the opposite of the hyphen. This is because while the hyphen helps
to pull the words together, these help to clearly separate the words. They are
used when one or more words are introduced as an added explanation or as
an after thought. For example, “John Milton-not the great English writer has
died.”
Instead of dashes brackets can be used to serve the same purpose. There are
two types of brackets. These are the ordinary –curved brackets and the
square brackets. The square brackets are used in quotations to indicate that
the words that are put in the brackets are not those of the speaker being
quoted but rather of the one doing the quoting. For example, “One MP said,
“After the petition had been drafted, Hon. Mukasa for unknown reasons [I
think he was bribed] had a change of heart.”
The dash is also used to separate an introductory series or thoughts from the
explanations that follow. For example, “Lilacs and rose_those are my
favourite flowers.” It is also used to separate a sudden change in thought. For
example, “Dinner is ready_oh, I left my pen in the taxi.” Use a dash to show
omission of words in a dialogue. For example, “It is_don’t worry”, Jack
shouted.
The Ellipsis
It refers to three or more dots put into a sentence. It has got two functions
which are to add an after thought to a sentence and to indicate that words
have been left out deliberately from the quotation to save on size and space.
In the first function, it can be replaced by a dash. In the second function, it
enables the writer quote a long passage and at the same time leave out
words that he/she deems are not necessary without compromising the
essence of the quotation.
The Apostrophe
It can be described as an inverted comma and it has three main functions in
writing. The first function is to show that one or more letters or numbers are
omitted from a word or a number. It is also used before or after s’ to show
possession and the plural of letters and numbers. For example, 3A’s 2’s or
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Jane’s book. It is used to show that some numbers have been omitted and
possession. For example, “’49, ’60 or John’s pail etc.”
Inverted Commas/Quotation Marks
These marks are used when the writer finds that the best way of expressing
him/her self is to use the exact words of the writer or speaker or the
document he/she is referring to. When this is done, those words are placed in
inverted commas.
However, long quotations and sometimes quotations used for emphasis are
usually placed in the middle of the page. When using a computer or
typewriter, the quotation should be single spaced without using the inverted
commas.
Paragraphing
A paragraph is the largest unit of a discourse and a discourse may be in form
of an essay, composition, report or an article. In all the forms mentioned
above, a paragraph provides the principle framework of expressing each of
the main points that the writer has got.
A paragraph is a section of a text that should contain an idea or point. When
paragraphing, it is important to make each paragraph reasonably long. This is
because the main work of a paragraph is to make it easy to read and follow
the points which the writer is trying to make.
Note that the practice of indenting half an inch at the start of each paragraph
is becoming old fashioned but a must when you are writing formally in most
former British colonies. The new practice-sometimes known as the American
version especially when using a typewriter or a computer is to leave a line or
double space between the paragraphs.
The paragraph unlike a sentence or a word is not a grammatical unit which
means that its linguistic description is very difficult. In spite of this, good
writers have agreed on some basic principles which need to be following in
paragraphing. These include the following:
A good paragraphing should deal with one idea or point. This point should be
exposed clearly in the topic sentence which has to appear at the start of the
paragraph. Since each paragraph deals with one point or idea, a good
paragraph should therefore have the capacity to be summarised in only one
sentence. In addition, a good paragraph should have at least the qualities of
unity and coherence.
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Unity in a paragraph refers to the degree or extent to which sentences in the
paragraph are united or joined in dealing with the central idea of the
paragraph. A writer therefore, violates paragraph unity when he puts in
materials that are not related to the central idea of the paragraph.
It should also be noted that in order to have unity at the paragraph level, one
must have unity at the sentence level. This is because of the obvious fact
that one can not produce a good paragraph unless the sentences he uses
also have this important quality. A sentence lacks unity when it combines
unrelated thoughts and has excessive details which can obscure the central
thought of the sentence.
Coherence as a quality means that there should be a reasonable and orderly
relationship between words that make up a sentence and sentences that
make up a paragraph. Thus coherence involves having various parts of the
paragraph in meaningful or arranging thoughts in a way that makes their
logical relationship clear.
At the level of a paragraph, coherence mainly comes about in the following
ways:
1. By a logical arrangement of sentences in the paragraph.
2. By the use of transition words or expressions. Such words may include
some of the following: for example, however, in other words, in spite
of, although and many others.
3. The use of pronouns to link up one sentence or idea to another.
4. Through careful repetition of specific ideas in a preceding sentence
using different words and phrases.
At the level of a sentence coherence refers to the logical ordering of
elements in a sentence. Lack of this leads to lack of clarity. Absences of
coherence at the level of the sentence can be due to the breaking of he rules
of combination. Breaking the rule of combination comes about as a result of
two types. The first type comes about as a result of poor ordering of the
elements in a sentence. Linguistically a sentence is made up of three major
elements. These are the subject phrase, verb phrase and object phrase.
These parts cannot appear anyhow as there are grammatical rules that
govern their combination. When the rule is broken, the sentence looses
coherence.
The second way of breaking the rules of combination concerns sentence
agreement. Agreement as a term that refers to the description of the
relationship between the inflection forms of different forms in a sentence. A
sentence lacks coherence if the elements in the sentence do not agree. For
example, “As time passes the dressing fashions change.” Or “The teacher
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said he will see me today.” Sentence agreement arises when two or more
singular subjects are connected by and. In this case the plural form of the
verb should be used. For example, “A drunkard and his drink are
inseparable.” Or “John and his girlfriend have been here.” If the connection is
with or, then the singular form of the verb is to be used. For example,
“Neither him nor his ministers was here.” Or “Not only the teachers but the
headmaster encourages it.” In the case where one subject is singular and is
connected by or, nor to a plural subject, then the plural form of the verb
should be used. For example, “The president as well as the ministers need
advice.” Or “The Nile hotel together with UCB were sold.” It should be noted
that singular subjects followed by words such as: as well as, and many others
require a singular verb. In the case of relative clauses the verb must agree
with the representative of the pronoun. For example, “He is one of the men
who act as an adviser.” Or “This is one of those women who has got two
husbands.” It is important to note that plural numbers take a singular verb
when used in a phrase to indicate a sum or a unit. For example, “Twelve
years in office are too long.”
The rule of proximity holds that for sentences to have coherence, all words
that modify the others in the sentence must be placed as close as possible to
the words that they modify. Adverbs such as almost, only, even just, hardly,
nearly, merely are regularly placed immediately before the words they
modify. If this is not done the intended meaning may not come out clearly
and the sentence may loose coherence.
Use of Figures in Writing
Frequently a writer has to make a choice as to whether he/she should use
figures or words in a text. Like in many other writing situations, the decision
may depend on many other factors such as subject, audience and purpose of
the communication. However, there are a few general guidelines which help
when in doubt as whether to use words or figures. These are:
1. The numerals from one to ten look better when spelt than when
written in figures. The only exception is where figures are linked to
units like ‘2 kgs’ or ‘5 ls’.
2. One is free to use figures for everything else apart from
generalisations. For example, ‘thousands of people’ or ‘millions of
shillings’.
3. One should never start a sentence with a figure. In the situation where
the number is to start a sentence, spelt it. For example, ‘Twelve boys
went to Mbale last week.’
4. Fractions always look better when spelt out rather than when
expressed in figures. For example, ‘I use two thirds of my salary on
food.’
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5. Dates should be written with the name of the month spelt out. For
example, ‘I was born on 3rd November, 2008.’
6. It is advisable to leave out commas when you are writing figures below
ten thousand and use commas for figures above ten thousand. For
example: 1000 or 100,000.
7. Where possible avoid ending a sentence with a figure. For example, ‘I
personally counted all the bottles and they were thirty.
Listing Items
Lists are very important because they break down information into units that
are easy to read and understand. There are several ways of listing items
when writing and these include numbered lists used when one wants to make
reference to listed information else where in the document. They are also
useful when the amount of information to be listed is big and diverse. When
numbering it is advisable to keep the numbering simple and consistent
throughout the document. If there are sub list in the document use letters or
Roman figure if Arabic numeral have already been used in the document.
Remember to use brackets with the figures so that they stand out clearly.
Apart from numbers, bullets, arrows, dashes pointing fingers and boxes can
be used. These are ideal when one is dealing with small amounts of
information. The following should be observed when using lists: use a colon
before a list, use small letters not capital letters to start each point, avoid
repetition at the start of each point, keep the sentence structure consistent in
each point and the full stop should appear at the end of the last item of the
list unless a complete sentence is used in each item or point.
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Chapter Four
English Language Grammar, Spelling and Vocabulary of English
Introduction
Like in all languages in the world mastery is judged not on how well one
speaks but on how well they write. Therefore, it is very important for writers
to master the spelling of words in English. Unfortunately, English spelling is
one of the most difficult in areas of language masterly. This arises from the
fact that words are not spelt as they are pronounced and because of this
many times writers inadvertently misspell many words in their documents.
The complexity of English spellings is not only a problem to second language
learners but to the native speakers as well. It is as a result of this complexity
that in 1948, the House of Commons was compelled to debate a private
members bill that aimed at reforming the English authography. The motion
was defeated and this has left users of the English language two viable
alternatives-cramming the spellings of the words or using a dictionary.
It is therefore important to beware of the common problems of spelling in
English and some guidelines to help reduce on the incidents of misspelling.
The common causes of misspelling English words include the following:
1. It is common in English to find a single letter representing several
sounds for example the letter s represents /z/, /s/, /f/ sounds in the
words hers, sing and sugar. This means that if one only knew that s is
equivalent to sound /z/ he/she will write all words with a /z/ with an s
which is not the case.
2. The other related problem with English spellings is that one letter or a
combination of letters may represent a single sound for example sound
/u/ can be represented by letter o, oo, wo, ou and many other as seen
in the words, to, too, two, ought, and though. The other problematic
letter-sound among the many is /a:/ which can be /au/, /a/, /ar/, /aer/
as in the words, aunt, pass, part, heart and so many others. Therefore,
many writers will not be ware of what combination to use since all
sound the same. That is why many writers confuse the words heart and
hurt and hat and hut.
3. Some letters are in words just for formality, serving no purpose at all.
These are the silent letters and writers not aware of their existence in
certain words end up misspelling such words. These letters include: /e/
like in hoe, toe and shoe, /b/ in bomb, dumb, bough, /h/ in hour, hotel,
ghost, honour, /s/ in island, /gh/ in bought, fight, daughter and /w/ in
sword, write, whole to mention but a few.
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4. Some sounds in words are not represented with any symbols. These
are sounds that are there without a corresponding letter. For example
the sound /z/ in the Xerox.
5. There are three ways of spelling the /seed/ sound. The first option is
/sede/ as in supersede. The second is /cede/ as in exceed, proceed and
succeed. The third option is /cede/ as in accede, concede, intercede,
precede, recede and secede.
Given the complexity of English spelling a careful writer should adopt some
useful guidelines to reduce if not eliminate misspellings. The first guideline to
proper spelling is that when in doubt; always use a dictionary if and when you
can. If for one reason or the other, you can not use the dictionary, below are
some lexical guides that can assist a person spell some words correctly and
master the English spellings.
One of the things that can help a person master English spellings is o know
the morphology of the English words. This is to understand how English words
are built from the morphemes [prefixes, suffixes and roots]. It is very
important to note when spelling that most English words are built up by
prefixing and suffixing different morphemes to the root of the word. When
spelling, therefore, one builds up the word from their component parts
instead of spelling them as a whole unit. For example if one knows the break
up of words such as dissatisfied, dissolve, dissimilar, it is unlikely that they
will spell these words with a single s as is the case with those who do not
know the break down of such words.
Remember that what applies to the words above apply to almost all other
words that have similar construction. On the other side of the coin,
knowledge of the prefixing rule above will enable the writer not to spell words
such as: disappear, disappoint with a double s. in the same way when we
consciously add the adverbial suffix /ly/ to an adjective or an adverb the
common mistake of misspelling of adverbs ending in /ly/ is greatly reduced
for example in words like: occasionally, similarly or joyfully. Below are some
of the guidelines to proper spelling of some problematic English words.
1. When a suffix beginning with a vowel sound is added to a word of one
syllable ending with a single vowel plus a consonant, the consonant
doubles in most cases. Therefore the following words change to: dig-
digging, big-bigger, stop-stopping etc.
2. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word of more than
one syllable ending in a single vowel plus a consonant, the consonant
does double when stressed and does not if it is not stressed for
example begin-beginning, submit-submitting etc.
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3. When a suffix that begins with a consonant is added to a word ending
in a silent /e/ the silent /e/ remains for example in safely, sameness.
However, if the suffix begins with a vowel the silent/e/ is dropped in
almost all cases. The only exception is when it follows before /a/, /o/
or /u/ as in changeable, serviceable naming etc. there are a few
exceptions like in due-duly, true-truly, whole-wholly line-lineage, mile-
mileage etc.
4. The letter /y/ becomes /i/ in most cases where the words end in
consonant and /y/ in most cases. For example: ally-allied, happy-
happiness etc. a few exceptions are pity-piteous, shy-shyly, dry-
dryness.
5. The nouns that end with /o/ the plural morpheme /s/ become /es/ as in
the following words, cargoes, echoes, mosquitoes, tomatoes etc.
6. When in doubt as to use /c/ or /s/ in words such as advice or advise,
the rule is that /s/ is for verbs and /c/ for nouns.
7. On the issue of /ei/ or /ie/ in words that sound like the long /e/ sound in
the word /feet/ note that /ie/ is the most common and when the
combination follows /c/ then use /ei/ as in receive, deceive etc. In
words that have the /ei/ or /ei/ that do not sound like a long /e/ but
more like a long /a/ use /ei/. For example in words such as ‘freight,
reign, vein, forfeit, their, counterfeit etc.”
8. When a prefix is added to the root word, the spelling of the root word
does not change. Some of the common prefixes are dis, in, un, il, im,
mis, non, re and over; as used in the following words. Illegible,
disorderly, overrated, overrule, remover, unrealistic, implausible, non-
violence to mention but a few.
Vocabulary
One’s command of the English language affects that person’s ability to
communicate effectively. Therefore, it is important for all communicators to
build their language command. This is a painful task that can take a long
time. Nevertheless, it is a worthwhile endeavour as it empowers a speaker or
writer in his/her communication. It is not only a speaker/writer who needs to
improve his/her vocabulary, but also the listener and the reader. As it has
already been pointed out, communication is a two way exercise where both
parties-the receiver and the sender must understand each other. The
following are some of the techniques that one can use to master the
vocabulary of English.
1. Determining the meaning of the word through its context. This means
that the meaning of a word should be got from its environment where
it has been used. The surrounding of the word always gives the reader/
listener the clues as to what it is supposed to mean. For example the
word ‘obtuse’ can mean stupid or an angle greater than 90 degrees
but less than 180 degrees. In the sentence below, “I was too obtuse to
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learn anything in geometry.” The word obtuse means stupid. Whereas
in the sentence, “Mary constructed an obtuse angle.” The word obtuse
means a type of an angle.
2. Words also carry shades of meaning. This means that any word has got
two meaning. These are the denotational and connotational meanings.
Denotational meaning is the ordinary or dictionary meaning of a word.
On the other hand the connotational meaning of a word is the meaning
that is implied in the word because of its usage. For example the word
‘rat’ means a small rodent animal but could be used to mean a traitor
or as a verb to mean betraying and as an adjective as betrayal.
3. The other element of meaning in English is the synonyms rule. These
are word whose meanings are nearly the same. For example, car is the
same as auto, boy and lad, friend and pal girl and lass to mention but a
few.
4. English word can also be derived from the use of the antonyms rule.
These are words whose meanings are the opposites of the other words.
For example hot is the opposite of cold, sad and happy, guilty and
innocent, boy and girl to mention but a few.
5. The other way of getting the meaning of a word is by examining the
parts that make up the word. This is by separating the root word from
the suffixes and prefixes attached to it. The rule is simple, if one knows
the meaning of the affix, and then it is easy to work out the meaning of
the word got as a result of affixing. Most English words are derived
from Greek and Roman roots and affixes. Below are some of the
common Greek and Roman roots and affixes. Agog, anthro, arch, aster,
auto, bibl, bi, chrom, chron, cosm, crac, crypt,cycl, demo, dox, dyn,
erg, gam, gen, geo, gon, graph to mention but a few.
6. The other problem in the vocabulary of English is to do with the
variations in standard and American English. Standard English and
American English differ in spelling, vocabulary and pronunciation. For
example the words cheque, humour, programme, kerb, defence, lift,
petrol, biscuit, chemist and flat have different equivalents in American
English. These are check, humor, program, curb, defense, elevator,
gasoline, cookie, druggist and apartment respectively in American
English.
7. The other aspect of English language vocabulary is to do with
compounding. This is when words are formed by combining two or
more words. For example words such as downtown, football, alongside,
brother-in law, backyard, bookkeeper, butcher knife, court marshal,
forty two, out of date, out doors newspaper etc are examples of
compound word.
8. The other aspect of English vocabulary is to do with blends or
portmanteau words. These are words that are created by combing two
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words by eliminating the unwanted letters to form a new word.
Examples of such words include; bash, clash, flare, glimmer, telethon,
moped, paratrooper, motorcade, brunch, splotch to mention but a few.
9. Clipping of words is another aspect of English vocabulary. This is when
words are shortened to form new words. Examples of clipped words
include the following: auto, fan, gym, flu, dorm, bus, champ, lab, exam,
lunch, sun, and ad to mention but a few.
10.Eponyms are words that are derived from the names of people. These
are words that are given to actions that were popularised by certain
people. Examples of such words include the following: sandwich, lynch,
tuxedo, Braille, watt, silhouette, leotard, hamburger, diesel, and
boycott, maverick to mention but a few.
11.Acronyms are words that are formed from the initials of a group of
words. These are either pronounced as a word or as letters that form it.
Common examples are NATP, VISTA, HUD, SEATO, CORE, WAC, NASA,
AU, SALT, UN ECOWAS, SADAC, UNAID, WHO, IMF to mention but a
few.
12.Jargon is another element of English vocabulary. These are words used
by a particular profession in reference to their jobs. They are
sometimes defined as specialised language. For example in football
words such as heading, save, sweeper, wall, marking, foul centre
forward, midfield etc have special meanings that only a footballer or
someone familiar with the game can understand. Likewise words like
modem, hard disc, floppy motherboard, mouse, cursor, desktop,
laptop, windows, operating system, and hard copy software hardware
can be understood by someone in the computing word than say a
mason.
13.Gobbledygook or double speak are special forms of jargon that are
used to confuse and exclude people. It is a type of impressive and
sophisticated language use whose main intention is to conceal rather
than reveal the meaning. Normally long sentences are used. Such
sentences as below have employed this aspect of vocabulary. “He
rendered a positive acclamation on the matter of my interrogation. We
proceeded to the dry cleaning facilities where the proprietor
acknowledged our presence or I utilised your idea to finalise my
project. The usage of shin guards offers protectional advantages to
players during the game.”
14.Euphemisms are words that are substituted to make something that is
offensive or unpleasant sound more agreeable or inoffensive. Some
euphemisms are mere forms of harmless courtesy while other are a
form of misleading political correctness. For example the gents, the
ladies, short call or call of nature are some of the common courteous
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euphemisms. Other like personal assistant for secretary or
maintenance facilitator for janitor are examples of political correct talk.
15.Clichés are another confusing element of English vocabulary. These
are words that are overused, have become stale and no longer convey
the real and fresh meaning that they carried when they were first
used. These include expressions such as stop crying like a girl, you hit
like a girl, a woman’s place is in the kitchen, the apple of my eye, birds
of the same feathers, blind as a bat, raining cats and dogs, boys will
always be boys, hook, liner and sinker to mention but a few.
English Language Grammar and the Sentence
Grammar is defined as the part of the study of a language that deals with the
forms and structures of words [morphology] and their arrangement [syntax].
Whether words are used in the spoken or written forms, they have to be
arranged in such a way as to give meaning. If the words are to convey a
meaning it is important for the communicator to consider the forms and
structures of the words he/she is going to use. For example the word
‘invitation’, the speaker or writer should know that it comes from the root
which is ‘invite’ and a suffix which is ‘ion’.
Therefore, the process of joining ‘invite’ to ‘ion’ creates a new word,
‘invitation’ that the speaker or writer uses because it carries the meaning
that he/she wants to express. It is not only the structure of a word that is
important to a speaker or writer. Equally important is the arrangement of
these words to make sense. The meaning of an expression is not the totality
of the meanings of the words used. It is the manner in which they are
arranged to make sense. Therefore, grammar looks at how these words are
strung together to create meaning.
Grammar is also defined as the system of words structures and words’
arrangement of a given language at a given time. The main concept of the
above definition of grammar as the structure and arrangement of words is
similar to the previous definition. This is in the sense that the way words are
put together in an expression or how they are created, determine whether
they will carry the meaning or not. For example, a string of words like the one
below makes not sense until they are put in a specific order. ‘Boy, the, went,
school, last, morning, early week’. These words carry no meaning until they
are put in the following order, ‘The boy went to school early in the morning
last week.’
The new concepts in the above definition are ‘given language and at a given
time’. This implies that different languages have different ways, say of how
words can be arranged to make sense and the arrangement and structure of
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language change with time. For example in black American English it is
normal to use double negatives while in Standard English such constructions
are considered wrong. The case in point is, the Black American English
speaker might say, ‘I haven’t seen nobody’ which someone using Received
Pronunciation will never use. He will instead say, ‘I haven’t seen anybody’. At
the same time the arrangement of English during Elizabethan times is quite
different from the arrangement today.
The third definition of grammar is that it is a system of rules for speaking and
writing a given language. The core meaning of this definition is that all
languages have unique rules that they follow. Therefore, the speaker or
writer of a given language must adhere to these rules when using language.
For example in English to convert a regular verb to the past tense, one must
add the suffix /ed/. If the words you want to use to express the idea that the
action happened in the past are ‘cook’, ‘walk’ and ‘hang’, then /ed/ must be
added to them and the correct words will be /cooked/, /walked/ and /hanged/.
Therefore, the addition of /ed/ to create a past form of the verb is one of the
many rules that constitute the grammar of the English language. The
structure and arrangement of the English language has been simplified in
such a way that all English words are reduced to eight main categories known
as parts of speech.
Parts Of Speech
The main components of grammar are the parts of speech. These constitute
the broad categories of rules that are applicable to the English language. The
core assumption of the parts of speech is that all English language expression
includes at the minimum at least two of the eight categories under which all
English language words fall. The following are the major parts of speech in
the English language.
The Verb
The verb is defined as a word that expresses or describes an action or a state
of an object or a person. It should be noted that each English language
sentence or expression must contain a verb. For example the words compose
and sing in the sentence, “She composes and sings songs,” are example of
verbs of action. And the word poisonous in the sentence below is an example
of a verb of state of being. “The brown snake is very poisonous.”
There are four classes of verbs. These are the action verb that describes
physical or mental activities. These include the words thunder and believe in
the following sentences. “The horses thundered down the course. Michael
believed her story.” The linking verb is that which joins the subject of a
sentence to a noun or the adjective that describes it. The common linking
verb is ‘be’ for example in the sentence “Her name is Sarah.” Other linking
verbs are appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay,
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taste and turn to mention but a few. The verb phrase is a cluster of two or
more verbs that work together. One of them is the main verb and the others
are simply helping verbs. For example in the sentence below the words ‘are
going’ form a verb phrase. The other common helping verb phrases include;
is, are, was, were, am, be, been, do, does, did, can, could, will, shall, should,
would, have, has, had, may and might.
Verbs change their form to agree in number with the subject of the sentence.
This is common with the present simple tense. In singular most verbs take
the suffix /s/ or /es/ while in the plural form they do not. For example, “Alice
drives. The train arrives on time. Jane and Alice drive. Trains arrive on time.”
Verbs also indicate mood. There are three different moods that they indicate.
These are the indicative where something is stated as factual. For example,
“The bus stops at the corner.” The other mood is the imperative that
indicates a command or a request. For example, “Please pass the salt. Show
me your driving license.” The third mood is the subjunctive which expresses a
wish or makes a statement that is opposed to fact especially when the if
clauses are used. For example, “I wish this exam is simple.”
The other important thing to note about a verb is that it is only useful when it
is converted into a tense or a participle. That is to say all verbs can be used
only if they are put in an appropriate time. For example the verb ‘cook’
makes sense when put into a participle or tense as in the two sentences
below. ‘She cooked supper last night.’ Or ‘She cooks lunch everyday’. The
different tenses that a verb can take include the present tense that has the
simple, continuous and perfect, the past tense which has the simple, the
continuous and the perfect and the future which also has the simple,
continuous and the perfect. For example the verb teach will have the
following variations in the nine possible tenses in the English language:
teach, teaching, has/have taught, taught, was teaching, had taught, will
teach, will be teaching and will have taught.
One area of difficulty when using verbs is the proper use of participles. When
using participles such as having, going, running, turning to mention but a
few, be careful because you can leave them hanging if you fail to identify
their subjects clearly. For example: “Having addressed the meeting for two
hours, an interval was then agreed.” It is clear that the person addressing the
meeting is the subject of the sentence. However, it is not clear who it is that
agreed the interval. The example is: “Passing quickly through the agenda it
was then the turn of the treasurer to give his report.” The questions raised
above are to be raised here. Was it the treasurer who passed quickly through
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the agenda? This clearly shows that a dangling participle is a certain cause of
confusion to the reader and hence a hindrance to effective communication.
As noted above, a verb is only useful in communication if it is converted into
a tense. In order for you to use the tenses properly ensure that there is a
level of consistence in the use of the tenses in an expression. Never mixed
the present and past or perfect tenses in an expression. For example the
sentence below is wrong: “I went there because I have been thinking that I
should like to see her.” The best way to express that thought is to say: “I
went there because I thought I should like to see her. The other problematic
tense arise from the verb ‘to be.’ Note that the past simple tense of the verb
‘to be’ are was for singular pronouns and were for the plural pronouns.
However, there are exceptions as demonstrated in the sentences below. “If I
were a judge, I would sentence all sex offenders to life imprisonment.” In the
same way one can say: “Suppose he were the Prime Minister, I would have an
important government job.” A good tip to follow when not sure of whether to
use were or was, is that the tense should be related to the subject of the
sentence.
The other problem that verbs arise is the fast rate at which new verbs are
being created by suffixing the nouns. Such words include containerize,
hospitalize, civilianize, servicize, anathematize, mesmerize and peripherarize
to mention but a few. Many of these ‘ize’ or ‘ise’ verbs can make it easy to
communicate complicated things. Nevertheless, the communicator should
guard at jargonizing his/her communication with these new words that may
not be common to his/her audience. For example nouns such as container,
hospital, civilian, service, peripheral and anathema can be changed into the
following verbs: containerize, hospitalize, civilainize, servicize, periheralize
and anathematize respectively. Furthermore, moisten and complete can be
become, moisturize and finalize. The writer/speaker should not be taken into
the beauty of and the apparent sophistication that these words carry and
must use them sparingly for him/her t create sanity in his/her
communication.
Another issue that must be given attention in communication as far as verbs
are concerned are the split infinitives. An infinitive of the verb is its basic
form, for example: to be, to go, to take, to cook to mention but a few. The
infinitive is spilt when an adverb in inserted between the participle ‘to’ and
the verb. Some of the examples of spilt infinitives are: ‘to quickly go’, ‘to
quietly take’ or ‘to always be’. Though it is common these days to find such
expression, a communicator should be careful especial when to use these
forms. It is an accepted fact that the grammatical rule of infinitives that
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states that they should not be broken ensures that the correct meaning is
conveyed.
The Noun
The other important part of speech is the noun. By definition a noun is the
word that names a person, object, place or idea. A noun is used as either a
subject or an object in a sentence. As a subject, the noun names the main
doer or actor in the sentence. For example, ‘John killed a rat.’ In the sentence
above, John performed the action. As an object, the noun refers to the person
or object unto which the action is performed. In the example above, the rat is
the object. It is the one that John’s action of killing was performed.
The other important point to note is that nouns can be classified into four
main classes. These are the proper nouns which are specific names of
persons, places, things and ideas. For example, Paul, Alaska, India, the Four
Freedoms. Common nouns are those words that are not specific names of
persons, places, things or ideas. For example, singer, state, country, district,
freedom. The proper nouns are those that are written with an initial capital
letter and refer to names of people, places, subjects etc.
The nouns are also classified as either concrete or abstract. Concrete nouns
are the ones that name objects that can be perceived by the senses of sight,
touch, taste, smell, or hearing. For example people, book, football, house to
mention but a few. An abstract noun is the type that names ideas, qualities,
or feelings. For example equality, right, happiness self control to mention but
a few.
Nouns can be classified as compound nouns. These are nouns that are
formed after joining two or more words together to form one word. For
example landlady, motorboat, shin guard, outer space, sister-in-law to
mention but a few. The last classifications of nouns are the collective nouns.
These are nouns that name a group. For example choir, class, club, jury,
committee, crowd, group, organisation and team among the many.
Note that all nouns, especially when used as subjects and in the singular
carry an article, unless they are proper nouns. Nouns may change to indicate
the possessive. This usually happens when the noun is written with a hyphen
s for example ‘John’s car. They can e transformed in other nouns by adding
suffixes ance, tion, ence, ism, ment, and ness to form other nouns like in the
words guidance, invitation, conference, nationalism, sickness to mention but
a few. The problem normally associated with nouns is to do with getting the
plurals of both regular and irregular nouns. The simple rule is that you add
suffix /s/ or /es/ or /ies/ to the noun to change it to plural.
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Problems that arise in the use of nouns mainly deal with the conversion of
nouns from the singular to the plural. The simple rule of adding /s/ or /es/
does not cover all nouns. There are exceptional cases such as nouns that end
in/ey/ such as valley, money simply takes an /s/ and not /ies/ as is the case
with most /y/ ending nouns such as cities. The /o/ ending words can take a
simple /s/ or a /es/. The choice depends on whether the word is a two or three
syllable word such as tomato, poato or hero. In the cases above a /es/ is used
to produce plurals ‘tomatoes’ ‘potatoes’ and ‘heroes’. Whereas long imported
words and those with a vowel before the /o/ take /s/. For example, the plurals
of words like archipelago, gigolo, cameo, intaglio, imbroglio and abbreviated
words such as photo take a simple /s/.
In English there are imported words that have been anglicised such as
sanatorium; syllabus, terminus and ultimatum take a simple /s/ or /es/.
However, some French and Italian based words keep their own plurals. For
example, addendum-addenda, beau-beaux, bureau-bureaux, cactus-cacti,
criterion-criteria, fungus-funfi, memorandum-memoranda, minimum-minima,
phenomenon-phenomena, plateau-plateaux. Along side the above, one
should be aware of words such as medium which becomes mediums, media
which remain media, series which remains series, fish that can be fish or
fishes –fishes when one is talking about types and fish if it is the same
species and folk which can be either folk or folks.
The other problem related to nouns in current English usage comes from the
growth of the language. There has emerged a trend of creating polysyllabic
nouns that are derived from the new generation of /ize/ verbs, themselves
often derived from shorter nouns. Such words include: containerization,
hospitalization, moisturization, casualization, de-containerization, de-
hospitalization, de-moisturization to mention but a few. One should watch out
for such words because they can make the communication hard to
understand. The way forward is to avoid jargonization of ones piece of writing
or speech.
The Pronoun
Pronouns are the words used instead of or in place of a noun or another
pronoun. For example the word her in the sentence below is a pronoun,
“Maria spent her youth in Kampala.” There is a general rule in English
language that repetitions should be avoided at all costs, pronouns are useful
because they allow some writers to repeat nouns by replacing them with
pronouns. The pronouns are never to be used with the article.
There are two types of pronouns. These are the personal pronoun like I, he,
she, we, they, it are both used in the singular and plural as well as the
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possessive. For example I is singular and we plural; mine is possessive.
Pronouns are also self reflective-that is they can be used to refer to each
other. These include ourselves, myself, herself etc that can be used in
singular or in plural and object pronouns.
The other types of pronouns are the relative pronouns that introduce a
subordinate clause, connecting it to some other in the sentence. Such
pronouns include who, which, whose, whom and that. The other type of
pronoun is the interrogative. This is the type that introduces a question.
Among these are who, whose, what, whom and which. Demonstrative
pronoun is that which points out a specific person, place, thing or idea.
Among these are this, that, these, those. The opposite of demonstrative
pronoun is the indefinite pronoun. This is the type that does not refer to a
specific person, place or thing. These include somebody, both, few, many,
others, all, any, none, everybody, someone, everybody, to one to mention but
a few.
The main fault or confusion that arise from the use of pronouns is the inability
of the writer or speaker to link or relate them to their antecedents. For
example: “Helen cooked for her sister her favourite meal.” The question that
comes to mind in the above example is whether the favourite meal was of
Helen or her sister? Likewise the sentence below raises the same question.
“The general looked at his aide grimly. His eyes were half closed.” The
question in the above case is whose eyes where closed? Is it the general or
the aide?
The other problem associated with pronouns is to do with the identity of the
possessive pronouns his, her or its; or personal pronouns me, you, him, her. If
you are not clear which to use reshape the sentence or split it into two. In the
case of ‘I’ and ‘me’ the simple rule is that ‘I’ should be used as the subject of
the sentence and ‘me’ as the object of the sentence. For example: “It affects
you and me” “You and I are good friends.” If it follows a conjunction, then ‘I’
should be used as in the examples below: “He is as confused as I” “He is
younger than I”.
The Adjective
Adjectives are defined as words that describe or modify a noun or a pronoun.
In fact all adjectives are used with nouns or pronouns. They qualify a noun or
a pronoun by answering the questions of what kind, which one, how many or
how much. For example an old car, this street, three cats or more water.
The most common adjectives are articles. There are two types of articles.
These are the indefinite that do not point to a particular person, place or
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thing such as a, an. The other type is the definite article which points at a
specific person, place or thing. This type has one article which is the.
Adjectives can also be divided into proper and predicate adjectives. A proper
adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun. For example Ugandan
artist, Kenyan minister or Nigerian shop. A predicate adjective is that which
precedes the noun it modifies. For example dusty, beautiful and clever in the
sentences below are a predicate adjective. “The table is dusty. Sarah is a
beautiful and clever girl.” Some pronouns and nouns are used as adjectives.
The following words when used with nouns become adjectives while on their
own are pronouns or nouns. These are: all, another, any, both, each, either,
few, news, closet, and field to mention but a few.
Adjectives may change form to show degree of comparison. There are three
degrees that the adjective can change to. These are the positive, the
comparative and the superlatives. The rule of converting the positive
adjective to comparative or superlative is the addition of suffixes /er/ or /est/
if it is a regular adjective. For the case of irregular adjectives, there are
specific ways how they can be converted. For example better, more, worse,
best most beautiful greater, to mention but a few.
The main function of an adjective as a qualifier is to vary or extend the
meaning of the noun it modifies. However the use of adjectives in this sense
should be used with caution. This is because excess use of adjectives does
not only slow down the process of communicating, but also takes up a lot of
space-thus making the speech or piece of writing long. Therefore, the
speaker or writer should, among other things avoid using tired overused
qualifiers such as: luxury flat, stunning blonde, staggering sum, hush-hush
inquiry, vital clues and a burly policeman. Other include: surprise swoop,
brutal murder, secret hideaway are not only excess words that are not really
required in extending the meaning of the expression, but also are
tautological and brain-lulling.
The other popular and often confusing set of adjectives are those that are
based upon nouns such as miracle, shock, model, terror, horror and love. It is
common to find speakers or writers using adjectives like a miracle baby,
shock report, love child, and love nest and so on. The problem with these
adjectives is that instead of expanding the meaning of a noun, they contract.
To put it different: ‘what exactly is a love child and probably how is it
different from any other child and are there hate children.’ The questions
above will show that these adjectives do not precisely qualify the noun and
therefore, are wastage of space. In this case adjectives such as the following:
considerable difficulty, all-tine record, cherished belief, psychological
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moment, serious danger, grateful thanks, track record and broad daylight
should be avoided.
The Adverbs
Adverbs are defined as words that are used to describe or modify a verb,
adjective or another adverb. For example the words frantically, fairly softly as
used in the sentences below modify the verbs, bark, grow and glow
respectively. “The dog barked frantically. The land was fairly rocky. The
embers glowed softly.”
Most adverbs do not fall in special classes. However, some of them fall under
the following four categories. These are the interrogative. Interrogative
adverbs are those used to ask questions. Such adverbs include how, when,
where and why as in the questions below. “How do you spell your name?
Where is Kampala?” The other types are the intensifiers. These are adverbs
that modify other verbs and adjectives and not adverbs. The words rather,
extremely, really and somewhat in the sentences below are some of the
examples of intensifier adverbs. “A very old tree stands in your court yard.
He drove really fast. He was extremely tired. She was somewhat happy to
see him.” The negative adverbs are those that express a negative
modification. These include never, seldom, scarcely, barely and not as used
in the sentences below. “I have never seen him. She seldom visits us. I can
hardly see him on Sunday.” Adverbs can also be used as noun to express
when, where, how much, what extent. For example Harriet went home on
Sunday. Sunday in the example above is a noun-adverb.
Adverbs can also take suffixes to express a certain manner or time for
example slowly, recently. They also take the suffixes /er/ or /est/ to make
comparatives and superlatives respectively. For example father, faster,
deepest, longest to mention but a few. There are also irregular adverbs
whose superlative and comparative do not follow the general rule of adding /
er/ or /est/. such words include worse, worst, less, least, better, best to
mention but a few.
It should be noted that adverbs qualify verbs and other adjectives. However,
the writer/speaker should always use the common adverbs such as very,
rather, quite sparingly. This is because if they are overused they will appear
as verbal props in the piece of writing or speech. For other adverbs such as
occasionally, rightly, severely, half-heartedly, simply, implicitly, purely, finally
and so on, the writer or speaker should ensure that they are put in the right
position. This is because the position changes the meaning of the expression.
Take the examples below: “You can quickly teach dogs to do new tricks” “You
can teach dogs quickly to do new tricks.” The first sentence means that a
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person teaches the dogs to do new tricks while the second sentence carries
the meaning that the action can be done with ease. Therefore, is the aim of
communication is being concise and precise, the idea that your meaning can
be changed by simply the position of an adverb, then care should be taken in
where the adverb is placed.
The Prepositions
Prepositions are short words that are usually defined as words that show the
relationship of a noun or a pronoun to another word in the sentence. For
example the words ‘of, in, for’ as used in the sentences below are
prepositions. “The opera singer stood in the centre of the stage. The collage
is famous for its drama department. We had a fine breakfast of eggs and
steak.”
The following are some of the common prepositions used in English. They
include about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, as,
at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, beside, between, beyond, but, by,
concerning, down, during, except, for, from, on, into, like, of, off, on, over,
past, since, through, throughout, to under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon,
with, within and without. Besides the one word preposition, there are
compound prepositions. These are according to, along with, aside from, as to,
because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of, out of, owing to, subsequent
to and together with.
The following are some of the confusing prepositions in English. Beside
means by the side of while besides means in addition to or moreover or
except. Between refers to two persons or things while among refers or more
persons or things. From is used after the adjectives different, except means
excluding. In means inside or within while into shows movement from outside
to the inside of something.
The Conjunctions
Conjunctions are defined as words that connect words or group of words. The
smallest and common conjunctions include words such as and, but, or, for,
nor and yet. These are used alone and can join either single words or groups
of word. For example: “John and Mary are students of Makerere university.”
Other conjunctions work in pairs and these include: either...or, neither... or,
both...and, not only...but also. Some conjunctions join group of words to
independent clauses. This group of conjunctions include: after, because,
before, when, since and where. For example in the sentence: “We left before
the concert was over.”
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There are three classes of conjunctions. These are the coordinating
conjunctions that join words or group of words that are of equal importance in
the sentence. For example: and, but, or, yet, so and for. The correlative
conjunctions are used in pairs such as either...or, neither...or, both...and, not
only, but also and whether, or. The subordinating conjunctions are used to
introduce an adverb clause to show time, place, cause, purpose, limitation or
condition. These include: after, although, as, as much as, as soon as,
because, before, how, if, inasmuch as, so that, so, since, provided that, in
order that, than, that, though, unless, until, while, whether, wherever,
whenever and when.
The Interjections
Interjections are words that do not fit properly into the sentence. They are
words that do not carry any meaning but are useful in a sentence. They are
defined as words that express strong feelings or emotions of surprise, pain,
joy or anger. The following are some of the common interjections in English.
Below is a list of some common interjections. These are ah, aha, alas,
congratulations, dear me, gee, good grief, goodness, great, help, hey,
hooray, hurrah, never, nonsense, no way, phew, ugh, whew and yippee. The
interjections are in most cases punctuated with an exclamation mark.
For every communicator it is important to have knowledge about the syntax
of the English language. This is because to use English effectively one must
observe the aspects of English structures. This involves the knowledge of
parsing which is an attempt to reflect the organisation of the units that make
up the sentence. The assumption is that each sentence is a construction and
not a random string of words. It is constructed from smaller units that are put
together following specific rules. The small units become constitutes of the
larger expression. For example the simple sentence, ‘Jane called.’ Is made up
of two units-the subject or noun and the verb. The noun part is technical
called the noun phrase and the verb the verb phrase. From the above
example, the conclusion that can be drawn is that a sentence is made up of
phrases and the most important are the noun phrase and the verb phrases.
Given the creative and infinitive nature of language, these minimal units can
be expanded to include an infinitive number of sub phrases. The examples
below will help illustrate this belief. For example the sentence, ‘The father
took the young children to the zoo.’ This sentence has got the minimal noun
and verb phrases but these have been expanded to make the writer or
speaker meaning clear. If the sentence is broken up into it’s constitute units,
there will be a noun phrase-the father-which can still be broken up into
article-‘the’ and noun father. The verb phrase –took the young children to the
zoo-can be broken down into the verb which is took, the adjective phrase-the
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young children and the preposition phrase-to the zoo. The adjective phrase
can be subdivided into the article-the, the adjective-young and the noun-
children. The prepositional phrase can be divided into the preposition-to and
the noun phrase-the zoo, which in turn can be divided into the article-the and
noun-zoo. This clearly shows that the sentence is made up of small units that
are brought together so that the writer or the speaker can express their
thoughts.
The English Language Sentence
A sentence can be defined as a word or a group of words stating, asking,
requesting or explaining something. The key concepts in this definition are ‘a
word’ or ‘group of words’ this means that even one word like yes or no
constitute a sentence if it can state, ask, request or explain something.
Therefore, a sentence is best defined in terms of what the word or group of
words do in the communication process.
The other definition of a sentence is that it is a conventional unit of
connected speech or writing usually containing a subject and a predicate. It
should begin with a capital letter and end with a punctuation mark that can
either be a full stop or a question mark or an exclamation mark. The key
concepts to look at in the above definition are ‘conventional unit’, ‘speech or
writing’, ‘starting with a capital letter’ and ‘ending with ‘a punctuation mark’.
The first concept of conventional unit means that the words that form a
sentence must be arranged in an acceptable formant that is generally
accepted in a given language. The second aspect of either speech or writing
means that a sentence is a productive component of language that takes the
spoken or the written form. The last aspects in the definition are the use of
capitalisation and ending with punctuation mark. These emphases the
outside structure of a sentence as a unit demarcated by the stated
punctuation marks.
The other definition of a sentence is that it is a minimal sense unit either in
writing or speech that expresses a complete idea or thought. What is
important to emphases in the above definition is the concept of ‘sense unit’
and ‘expresses a complete idea or thought’. This means that for any group of
words to qualify as a sentence, they must carry a complete meaning of
whatever the speaker or writer is communicating. For example, even if
punctuated properly the statement, ‘I killed.’ The above state is not a
sentence because it is not complete as it leaves out what was killed.
In talking about a sentence it is important to talk about the grammatical parts
that constitute a sentence. These are the clause and the phrase. A phrase is
defined as a sequence of a few words conveying a single thought or forming
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a separate part of the sentence but not containing a subject or a predicate.
The other definition of a phrase is that it is a group of two or more words that
can function as a grammatical structure.
For example, ‘Sitting alone on the desk, Paul waited for the class to begin.’ In
the example above, the statement, ‘sitting alone on the desk’ is an example
of a phrase because it is sequence of word conveying a single thought and
forming a separate part of the main sentence. It also does not contain a
predicate and a subject. Alone the statement does not make sense. It makes
sense when it is part of the major sentence.
A clause in the simplest form is the opposite of the phrase. It is the most
important part of a sentence that contains the subject and the predicate and
can therefore, stand alone and still make sense. For example, in the
statement ‘Sitting alone on the desk, Paul waited for the class to begin.’ The
part ‘Paul waited for the class to begin’ is a clause. This is because it can
stand alone and still make sense and has the noun-Paul and the predicate-
waited.
Types of Sentences
In classifying a sentence the following issues should be put in consideration.
These are the purpose of the sentence, the level of difficult, the type of voice
used, and lastly the manner of utterance. These bring about four main types
of sentence. These are:
1. The first form of classifying a sentence is in terms of what it does or
the purpose of the sentence. Using this criteria there are four types of
sentences. These are the declarative sentence. A declarative sentence
is the type that states a fact. For example ‘Her story is short’ or ‘The
sun is shinning’. A close look at the two examples above show that the
speakers or writers are stating a fact. The fact being talked about is
the length of her story or the nature of the sun.
The other type of sentence is the imperative. This is the type that tells
or requests someone to do something. For example, ‘Will you please
pass the salt?’ In the example above the request is very clear and so is
the purpose of the writer or speaker.
The interrogative is the type of sentence that is used to ask a question
or make an inquiry. The speaker or writer wants to know something
and the sentence enables him/her to achieve this. Such a sentence
may or may not end with a question mark. For example ‘How long will
it take to load the lorry?’
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The last type in this category is the exclamatory sentence. This is a
sentence that expresses a strong feeling or emotion. They are usually
punctuated with an exclamatory mark. For example, ‘What a sharp
young man!’
2. The second type of classification deals with the level of difficulty of the
sentence. The difficulty is measured in terms of length and the
structure that the speaker or writer employs in the sentence. The
sentence, therefore, can be a simple sentence when it uses a simple
word order, simple and straight forward punctuation marks-a capital
letter and full stop, expresses one thought or idea and has the S+V
construction. For example, ‘The boy is sick.’ The example above has
one subject and verb and also use a simple word order with simple and
straight forward punctuation.
The second type of sentence in level of difficulty is the compound
sentence. This is a sentence that is made up of two or more simple
sentences through the use of connectors. Therefore, it expresses more
than two ideas or thoughts. It also employs elaborate and complicated
punctuation. For example, ‘The chairman of the NRM, who is also the
president of Uganda, is touring western Uganda.’
At the third level of complexity is the complex sentence. This is a type
of sentence that is made up of two or more compound sentences.
These are divided into the main clause and the subordinate clauses
that are joined together by the use of connectors and intricate and
complicated use of punctuation marks. For example: ‘The chairman of
NRM, who is also the president of the republic of Uganda (he has been
a president of Uganda for more than twenty years), is touring western
Uganda.’ The example above demonstrates the complexity of the
sentence and the fact that such sentences can use unlimited number
of words.
3. The third level of classifying a sentence is in terms of the voice that is
used in the sentence. There are two voices in English language. These
are the active voice and the passive voices. The active voice is the
type of sentence where the emphasis of the speaker or writer is placed
on the doer of the action. This means that a regular word order is used.
For example, ‘The girl has cooked supper.’
The passive voice sentence is the one where the emphasis is placed on
what happens to the subject or the doer of the action is unknown or
unimportant. It used the verb be regularly. For example, ‘Supper has
been cooked by the girl.’
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4. The fourth level of classifying sentences pays attention to the manner
of the utterance or who makes the utterance. Using this criteria there
are two types of sentences namely the direct and indirect speech
sentences. The direct speech sentence is the one where the exact
words of the speaker are used and are indicated by the use of
quotation marks. It also has an introductory statement and the two
parts are separated by a comma. For example, ‘The headmaster said,
“All of you must return with your parents and a bag of cement.”
Indirect or reported speech is the type of sentence where the exact
words of the speaker or writer are paraphrased and reported by
someone else. However, effort is taken to capture the meaning of the
original speaker or writer. For example, ‘The headmaster said that all
of us had to return with our parents and a bag of cement.’
Good speaking or writing largely depends on the communicator’s use of
sentences. This is because as referred to earlier, a sentence is the minimal
sense unit in any piece of communication. Whenever one is speaking or
writing, he/she must ensure that he/she uses the right and an acceptable
sentence structure. It should be noted that a good sentence should have a
subject and a verb-a verb that can be qualified by an adverb. For example:
“The policeman walked quickly.” The phrase, ‘the policeman’ is the subject;
‘walked’ is the verb and ‘quickly’ is the adverb. Alternatively the structure
could have an object or a complement. For example: “The policeman walked
quickly towards the boy.” The ‘boy’ in the above case is the object. The other
example is: “The girl felt happy.” ‘Happy’ is a complement because the verb
‘felt’ is inactive. This means that whenever the verb is inactive, the object is
replaced by a complement.
The conventional structure of the sentence can be varied by using the
implied subject. This device can give pace to the narrative and to produce a
special effect. What is important, though, is that the subject to be implied
should be clear, the structure should not be overused without justification for
it not to become just another mannerism. For example: “Too quickly did the
policeman move towards the boy.” “How full a day did they give him.”
Another case of errors occur when there isn’t agreement in the sentence.
Agreement in the sentence refers to the situation where the subject must
agree with the verb in terms of numbers. This mainly involves the persons in
English. These are the first person singular and plural; the second person
singular and plural and the third person singular and plural. This means that
the person of the subject and number must agree with the verb. For example,
if the subject is in the first person, second person and third person plural the
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verb in the present simple tense does not change and if it is third person
singular the verb in the present simple tense takes the suffix ‘es’ or ‘s’ ; as
shown in the examples below. “I move to school”, “She goes to school.” In
the case of numbers, if the sentence has a double subject the verb must be
plural. For example: “Oil and water do not mix.”
In case the subject is joined by a preposition the subject remains in the
singular form. For example: “Iron, with copper, is the most important metal.”
In the case of ‘neither...nor... or either...or...’ the verb agrees in number with
the subject nearest to it as in the example below: “Neither John nor his
brother is a member of the club.” Neither Helen nor her friends are going to
the city.”
The other problematic area is to do with numbers and quantities. Always use
fewer than for numbers and less than for amounts or quantities. For example:
“There were fewer than fifty copies of the Bible in the library.” “There was
less than a quorum so the meeting was abandoned.” All numbers used as
terms of measurement are singular. For example: “There was ten pence in
the pocket.” Note thought that ‘there were ten pennies’ is correct because
the speaker is referring to the unit and not the measurement. None as a
subject generally means not one and therefore, should be treated as singular.
The other problem is to do with collective nouns such as herd, bevy, class,
furniture choir, meeting gathering etc. Grammatically these are to be treated
as singular though they imply plural. This means it is correct to say: “The
class was too lively for the new English teachers.” Note that there are words
such as politics, mumps, graphics and acrobatics that end with an ‘s’, should
be treated as singular even if they end with an ‘s’.
English Language Clauses
A clause in the simplest form is the opposite of the phrase. It is the most
important part of a sentence that contains the subject and the predicate and
can therefore, stand alone and still make sense. There are two types of
clauses. These are the main clause and the subordinate clause. A main
clause is that part of the sentence that can stand alone as a question,
command, exclamation or a statement. For example ‘he was punished’. A
subordinate clause is that clause that is added to a sentence to clarify it and
can not stand on its own. For example ‘because he was late’
There are several types of subordinate clauses. The classification of
subordinate clauses depends on the nature of clarification that the clause
adds to the sentence. These vary from the descriptive, the adverbial, the
noun and the adjectival clauses. Below are some of the common clauses in
the English language.
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1. The adverbial clauses are the most common and include the clauses of
reason that are used to provide a reason why the action mentioned in
the main clause happened. They are introduced by the expressions
such as ‘as, since, for, because, as a result of to mention by a few.’ For
example in the following sentences the clauses of reason provide the
reason why the main action happened. ‘He came late because his
mother was sick’ or ‘As he was tired, he rested at his friend’s place and
continued with the journey the next day.’ The two sentences above
without the clauses of reason would solicit the questions of why he
came late and why he rested at his friend’s place. Therefore, the
clause of reason anticipates such question and in the process makes
the expression clear.
2. The clause of concession is the type that introduces a contradiction in
the sentence. This is when the action of the main clause does not
rhyme with the action of the subordinate clause. In other word, action
A would lead to action B but this does not happen, instead action C
takes place. These clauses are introduced with expressions such as
‘although, but, in spite, despite, for to mention but a few. For example,
‘Although he was sick, he went to school.’ ‘They went ahead and sold
the land, in spite of my objections.’ In the examples above when
someone is sick, it is expected that he/she does not go to school and
when one objects to something, the other party does not do it. In both
case what is expected in not done and the opposite is actually done.
3. A clause of purpose is the type that gives the motivation of the action.
It explains why the action in the main clause happened. These are
introduced by expressions such as ‘so that, in order that, in case to
mention but a few.’ For example, ‘The headmaster came early to
school so that he could mark the student’s books’ or ‘she carried an
umbrella in case it rained’ in the examples above each action has a
purpose and the purpose is introduced by a clause of purpose.
4. The conditional clause is that clause that specifies what must happen
or be done for a certain action to occur or take place. It is a kind of
construction that brings about the sense that the fulfilment of one
action is dependant of the happening of the other related action. The
conditional clause is introduced by if +present+future,
if+past+conditional and if+ past perfect +conditional perfect and the
unless. For example, ‘If I get money, I will go to Kampala’ or ‘If he had
worked, he would have passed the examination highly’. In the
examples above, the going to Kampala or passing examinations highly
depend on getting money or having worked hard.
5. The clauses of time are those that are used to indicate time or duration
in the sentence. They are introduced by words such as ‘when, before,
after, until to mention but a few. For example ‘when I was going to
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Mbale, I met a mad man’ or ‘After we had left for Kampala, Ivan arrived
from Congo’. Clauses of time also refer to those expressions that are
used to introduce a comparison in the sentence. Expressions such as
‘than, as...as and est. are used to introduce a comparison. For
example, ‘The journey to Mombasa is longer than that to Nairobi’
6. Clause of place is that which is used to indicate place or location in the
sentence. The word ‘where’ is the one word that introduce the use of
such a clause.
7. Relative clauses are those clauses that are used to introduce a
description of the subject of the main clause. This happens when the
subject of the main clause can not stand alone and if left without a
relative clause the sentence is not clear. They are introduced by
relative pronouns such as ‘which, that, who, whose, and whom.’ The
pronouns above each play its own unique role. For example, which is
used with none living things while whose show possession and who
objectification. There are two types of relative clauses. These are the
defining relative clause which adds crucial information to the subject.
For example, ‘The boy whose mother died last week has also died.’ In
the example above, describing the boy who has died in terms of his
mother makes the boy clear from other boys who have died. The
second type is the non-defining relative clause that simply adds
additional information to the subject. In other words with or without the
relative clause, the subject of the sentence can stand alone. For
example, ‘Museveni, who has been Uganda’s president for twenty
years, is a tough man.’ The relative clause in the example above
simply adds information but it is assumed the readers or listeners
know who Museveni is.
English Language for Clear Expression
Having discussed the main components of the English language, the next
important thing to do is to make the assumption that knowledge of English
language grammar does not translated in effective communication. Language
is first and foremost a tool that the communicator uses to transmit his/her
message. Like all other tools, for it to be effective, the user must employ it
effective. On its own it does not lead automatically to communication. This
section is to explore what a communicator has to do with language in order
to effectively communication. To put the question different, there are two
issues that must be addressed for English language to be used effectively by
the communicator. These are reduction in the errors and ensuring good
language usage practices.
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Good Language Usage Practices
Take a few minutes to explore the piece of writing below. Note that it could
be a piece of writing or speech. Whatever it is does not matter because it
does not take anything off it as a good piece of writing.
Jane Namukasa thought she heard the car’s radio. Then she realised the
sounds were voices of a cat. And it was mewing from inside a cardboard box.
Namukasa freed the white striped cat from the box that it had been left to
die.
The four sentences are an apt example of good writing. They are short and
direct. They do not dally. The words are unvarnished and are precise.
Whatever audience you plan to communicate to and whatever the form of
your communication, to be effective, you have to employ the techniques
employed by the writer of the passage above. This is because you as a
communicator-the source of information, are competing with numerous
sources of information and your audience do not have the time to sort out
what you are communicating. They want the information crisp, clear and
accurate. To ensure that your communication is crisp, clear and accurate, you
as a communicator must pay attention to the following.
Precision
A communicator should be like a musician in the sense that he/she should
worry about hitting the right notes. He/she should worry about choosing the
right words that are not only grammatically correct, but also semantically
precise. These are words that should say exactly what the communicator
wants to say. This is because the curse and gift of English language is its
richness of vocabulary. It offers countless opportunities to get it wrong in
choosing a right word to use because superabundance of words. In the same
vein, this superabundance has the capability of describing our experiences
with a remarkable degree of exactness. Therefore for effectively
communicate, do not just use a word: make sure that the word says exactly
what you want to say.
For example examine the problem with the passage below. “A blackout of
undetermined origin cut of power last night. Lights flickered off throughout
the city at 7:26 pm.” The writer wanted to inform his/her audience that the
power failed at 7:26 pm. The words he/she chose could not do that. For
instance a blackout cannot cut of power, it is what happens when power is
cut off. And power that has been cut off cannot flicker on and off.
Note that English gives you the wealth of possibilities to express yourself.
However, make sure that you choose well for the possibilities are enormous.
Take for example the possibilities of expressing the act of illegally taking
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someone else’s property which has the following: steal, extort, burglary, rob,
blackmail, stickup, pilfer, lift, larceny, sack, swipe, rip off, pinch, shoplift, hold
up, mug, plunder, piracy, embezzle, filch, heist, swindle, knock off, second-
story job, poach, purloin and theft. The other example is the expression
carrying the meaning that something has been communicated. Said is
substitutable with: announced, told, maintained, suggested, stated,
exclaimed, added, revealed, shouted, declared, indicated, recalled, charged,
argued, noted, insisted, claimed, retorted and pointed out. Therefore, if ones
property is taken at gunpoint has he/she been robbed, held up, burglarised or
ripped off? The right expression is held up, but the point is the numerous
possibilities that for all purposes and intents are wrong and will never say
exactly what the communicator wanted to say. To be a good communicator,
one must be able sense when he/she is using a wrong expression and ability
to find an acceptable substitute. This calls for hard work and study.
Clarity
The question that any writer or speaker should ask him/herself is whether
they want to be effective communicators or bad poets. The truth is that the
world is full of and the audiences are tied of bad poets. Therefore, one should
avoid the trap of unclarity. Take the case of political correctness that requires
that instead of saying ‘killing’ one should say ‘unlawful or arbitrary
deprivation of human life.’ This is the kind of expression that all
communicators should avoid. There is no reason why one should use seven
words when one can do. In the same line there is no excuse for substituting
an obscure though less upsetting phrase for a blunt direct word. The aim of
all communicators should be to tell their ‘stories’ in a simple and straight
way.
To ensure that the message is communicated in a clear way, you should try
to balance the content and style. Check out the passage below: “In a
bloodbath of Homeric proportions, 289 of our brethren saw the hooded
spectre of death on the city’s main thoroughfares last year.” The above
passage is quite impressive in terms of style but it hardly communicates. The
role of the communicator is to engage and entertain but their ultimate role is
to communicate. It is true that literary flourishes, obscure terms and jargon
as used in the passage above may impress but hardly communicate. One
should go for words that are more easily understood. The passage above
could have clearly put as: “As of yesterday afternoon, 289 people had died on
the roads this year.” Writers and speakers at all times should ensure that
their messages are conveyed in simple and unvarnished language.
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Difficult Words and Slang
A good communicator must at all times leave words that he/she strains to fit
in his/her communication in the dictionary. There is no sense in using a word
that a significant number of your audience will not understand. For example
consider the passage below and ask yourself if the writer or speaker has
communicated. “A court edict has temporarily interdicted the dismissal of
Kakoza Henry, Kampala city’s communication director, who has been the
subject of considerable contention.” The words, edict, interdicted and
contention are not common words and therefore, many people would not
understand what the speaker or writer is saying. The speaker would have
communicated easily by simply saying that: “Kakoza Henry’s dismissal has
been stopped.”
Speakers and writers should avoid the use of slangs. Slang may seem
common and current, but in real sense they are unfamiliar to many people
and besides it is informal. For example the word ‘can’ in the sentence below
is used as slang and as such it can cause problems to the audiences. “A court
order has knocked down plans to can James Kuloba.” What the writer should
have said: “The court has stopped the firing of James Kuloba,” which would
have been clear. Below is a list of words that are difficult, their slang versions
and the common words that writers and speakers should endeavour to use.
Apprehend, burst, arrest; officer of the law, cop, policeman/woman;
exemplary, bad, good; gentleman, dude, man; relieve oneself of stress, chill,
calm down and cannabis, pot, marijuana.
Jargon
Jargon is another enemy of clear communication. As it was noted earlier,
every profession has its own specialised language. It is wrong on the part of
the writer or speaker to assume that because he/she knows the meaning of
the word, the audience does as well-unless he/she is speaking or writing to an
exclusive audience. Therefore, if one is talking or writing about jargon-
infested professions and hobbies, one must take the responsibility to
translate the specialised language so that they can be understood by the
general public. Failure to translate will leave many in the audience confused.
Take the example of the sentence below: “The galaxy is more than 100 light
years away.” The question is what are ‘100 light years?’ Such a scientific
expression should be explained or translated. The addition of the expression,
“The galaxy is more than100 light years away; in other words, it would take
light more than 100 years to reach it.” However, if the unfamiliar term is not
important enough to force on the audience, then it is wise to replace it
completely with a translation. Consider the expression in the sentence below:
“Two years of declining apartment occupancy rates have hurt landlords.” The
phrase, ‘apartment occupancy rates’ may be common to real estate
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professional but not to the ordinary person. Therefore, for one to
communicate, the sentence should be translated as follows: “Landlords have
been hurt by two years in which the percentage of apartments they have
been able to rent has declined.”
One should note that in the process of communication, there is a
considerable temptation to use the jargon on the assumption that your
audience will understand what you are saying. One should never make this
assumption. Every profession has its own specialised language which is not
understandable to the common person. For example economists will talk of
sub prime rate-the interest rate at which favoured customers can borrow; for
the undertaker-people do not die but pass away; garbage collectors talk of
themselves as sanitary engineers; lawyers talk of affidavits and so on. It is
true that using simple language is not easy but then it is not impossible. If
one works hard at his/her communication, he/she will surely find a way
around the jargon.
Conciseness
The rule that all effective communicators should try to learn and employ is
that every word that they use must not only be understood, it must have a
purpose. The audience’s time is too valuable to them to just squander.
Therefore no word one uses should ever appear as wasted. This is when one
uses words that are unnecessary. There are three main causes of
unnecessary use of words.
These are redundancy, wasteful phrases and detour words. Redundancy is
when a speaker or writer uses a word or words that are not necessary to
communicate his/her message. Take the example of the sentence below:
“Whenever Manchester United is ahead on points, it is assured of the trophy.”
There is no other way a football team could be ahead apart from points.
Therefore, the writer or speaker should have avoided redundancy by simply
saying: “Whenever Manchester United is ahead, it is assured of the trophy.”
To avoid using redundant words and modifiers, one should try replacing them
with their opposites. If the resultant sentence does not make sense, then the
original word or modifier is unnecessary. For example if something is
destroyed you cannot say it is partially or completely because if it is
destroyed it is destroyed.
Below are some of the common redundant phrases: over exaggerate, two
twins, future plans, quick second, controversial issue, very first, general
consensus, true fact, sad frown, past history, personal feeling, assembled
crowd, loud scream, dead copse/man, little baby, definite proof, young
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freshman, an approximate estimate, close down, Jewish rabbi, new record,
and 7 a.m in the morning.
Wasted phrases refer to when a phrase is used where a single word can do.
For example should one use: ‘The Department of Literature is located in the
Faculty of Arts.’ Or ‘The Department of Literature is in the Faculty of Arts.’
The answer is that ‘in’ is a better option than ‘located in’. Below are some of
potentially wasteful phrases. These include: at this point in time-now, as a
result of-because, strike a tune-play, venture a suggestion-suggest, take
action-act, with the exception of-except, was the recipient of-received, is of
the opinion that-believes, in the event that-if, along the lines of-like, due to
the fact that-because, with reference to-about, having to do with-about, in
the near future-soon, at the present time-now, for the purpose of-to, in an
effort to-to and in order to-to.
Detour words by their nature are vague and always lead to the creation of a
wordy sentence. For this reason a speaker or writer should try as much as
possible to avoid such words. On of the commonest detour word is involved.
Such a word and others like it, make the description too week to be
meaningful. In this case, the writer or speaker should substitute the detour
word with a more specific one. For example, instead of saying: “She died
after she was involved in a car accident.” One should rather say: She died in
a car accident.” The difference between the two sentences is obvious. The
first one is wordy and long as compared to the second one. And also the
meaning is clear and straight forward in the second sentence.
Directness
All writers and speakers are at a certain level emotionally involved in the
subject their write or speak about. That they are so tuned into the
complexities of their subjects make them incapable of writing or speaking of
the account in a clear and straightforward manner for the listeners or readers
to understand. This is because their sentences will appear entangled with the
emotion of the subject.
If you are ever in such a situation, the advice that can be given to you is that
after the first draft of your speech or essay get time to reread it for clarity.
This will eventually help you to revise those sentences that are not direct to
make them direct.
The problem that makes the sentence not clear and direct always arises from
the use of verbs. As noted earlier, there are two types of verbs-namely the
active and passive verbs. In speaking and writing it is advisable to use the
active form of the verb. The action verb has one job and this is to describe an
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action and in fact it is better to say: “President Museveni has grabbed an
early lead in the Presidential elections.” Instead of: “An early lead has been
grabbed by President Museveni in the Presidential elections.”
The other issue that is of concern when the writer wishes to be direct in
his/her communication is the interface between verb and adjective. There is
always a temptation for writers and speaker to pay attention to the
description of the issue and not the action. Take the example of the sentence
below: “The fast-moving bullets went through the wall.” The adjective ‘fast-
moving’ diverts the audience from what happened in the case above.
Therefore, the speaker or writer, in the example above, would have made his/
her point by saying: “The bullets tore through the wall.”
The other reason why verbs do not carry their loads in sentences is the
overuse of the verb to be. The verb to be is an auxiliary or helping verb and
therefore, wherever it shadows the main verb, the vitality of the verb will get
lost. Take the example below: “The passengers were to take the bus to
Gayaza.” The sentence above will be more direct if the writer simply said:
“The passengers took the bus to Gayaza.
The good practices of language usage above should be complimented by
error analysis of whatever one writes or speaks. Good writing and speaking
depends on the speaker/writer’s ability to discover and correct errors in
his/her expression. It is important to note that even experienced writers and
speakers often commit errors. The common of which are faults of
grammatical in nature and use and meaning of words. What this section will
attempt to do is to give you a guide to finding faults in English language,
hoping that if and when this is mastered, speakers/writers will have the
capacity to self-edit and consequently communicate effectively. The following
are the units of error analysis in both spoken and written English.
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Chapter Five
Sources of Information and Forms of Academic Communication
Introduction
For someone to communicate effectively, such a person needs information.
Information is crucial to effective communication and for that reason, any
communicator must be aware of the different sources of information. There
are many sources of information and they are useful depending on the
information needs of an individual. It should be noted that one source is
useful in providing information on certain subject related to a particular
communicative need and quite useless in another communicative context. In
the process of searching for information, the communicator must be aware
that certain sources are useful as sources of certain information and not
sources of another type of information. The common sources of information
include the following.
1. The library is the most important source of information. It refers to a
physical location were different types of information resources are kept
and can be accessed. These include books, archive materials, journals,
newspapers and other written and audio materials. For example, a
student writing an essay on communication theory should visit the
library to search for information about communication theory. It is true
that the library has a lot of information; however, this information
could be of no use unless the person knows how to retrieve that
information. Therefore, it is prudent for all would be communicators to
get familiar how the library works.
2. The other important source of information is the oral. This refers to
information that is received from people. In everyone’s experience,
most of what they know was got from their family and acquaintances.
The way people behave or communicate is a copy of how other people
around they perform these activities.
3. The media is another source of information. Newspapers, Television
and radio are important sources of information. If one is interested in
current affairs-to know what is going on in the world, the first place to
look for is the press. The hard news [the type of news about important
personalities and dramatic happenings] as well as soft news such as
documentaries, commentaries and opinion pieces can provide people
with information about different subjects. All the examples listed above
can be accessed through the media.
4. The museums are another source of information. A museum is a place
where special artefacts are kept. These are collections of different
objects including manuscripts that are about issues, happenings and
actions of the past kept for the future generations. For example, if one
visited the Ugandan museum on Kiira road, such a person will come
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across rare documents and artefacts about Uganda. A visit to
international museums like those in London, Paris and New York will
enable someone access to important historical documents like the
Gettysburg speeches by Abraham Lincoln in which the US abolished
slave trade and the Jefferson declaration of independence to mention
but a few.
5. Archaeology is another way from which information can be got.
Archaeology is the science of studying history by the use of carbon
dating mechanism. It is a source of information because archaeologists
excavate an area and using scientific analytical tools piece together
the nature of human existence at a particular time in a given area. For
example Dr. Leaky and his excavation of in Kenya revealed that the
first human being first settled in east Africa several thousand years
ago. Similar works in Egypt, Greece and Italy as well as the middle-east
have brought to the world’s attention crucial information about the
early civilization. For example the translation of the modern bible is
based on the Dead Sea scrolls that were excavated by archaeologists.
6. In the twenty first century, the internet is fast becoming an important
source of information. In the simplest term, the internet is a network of
interconnected computers using a special language and software to
send and receive information and data between and within the
interconnected computers. The information that one can access from
the World Wide Web is a lot. It could be academic as it has links to
most of the universities and libraries in the world. It could commercial;
all different companies have web sites on which they display the goods
and services they offer. In fact using eBay, one can purchase any thing
from spare parts of an F18 stealthier bomb to the new Akon CD. In fact
it does not matter what type of information you want, all of it can be
accessed on the internet at the click of a button.
7. In countries like Uganda in which the level of literacy is still low-at
about an average of 50% in both men and women, the main source of
information is orature and folklore. The elders, who are the custodians
of history, custom, culture, taboos and norms pass over this
information to they young generation through various means. For
example, if one wanted to know the rituals and their significance
associated with the twins in Buganda or circumuscion among the
Bamasaba, such information will be got from the elders of such
communities and no where else. This includes the recent history of
these societies. For example the exploits of their heroes are still kept
in folklore.
8. The grape vine or the rumour mill is another source of information in
both literate and orate societies. Some information is sensitive that it
can not be published in newspapers nor be broadcasted on radios or
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TV. For such information, it is passed by word of mouth from the one
person to another. For example in Uganda, it commonly known as
radio katwe or having your ear to the ground. With whatever name, the
grape vine is an important source of information. However, anyone
using it as a source of information should be aware of its major
weaknesses-lack of credibility and distortion of the information during
the transmission process.
9. Anthropology is another key source of information. This refers to the
process where an individual goes to live in a community for a long time
with the purpose of documenting their ways of life. After 20 or 30 years
he/she leaves with a wealth of information about the way people in a
particular society live their lives. This normally applies to isolated and
backward communities that are hard to penetrate and understand. For
example, in Uganda many scholars have gone to live among the Batwa
in the Rwenzori Mountains to study their way of life and the impact of
modernisation on their way of life. Therefore, whoever searches for
information about the Batwa, would get such information from
anthropological studies.
10.Research is another source of information. This is a scientific process
of gathering, analysing data to generate new knowledge or to validity
existing knowledge. This is through qualitative or quantitative research
designs for purposes of getting data about phenomena. For example, a
manufacturer will carry out a product survey to find out what type of
product and at what price his customers want. Such information will
help him/her to create a product that will have market.
The ten above are some of the common sources of information that people
use to get information. The importance of sources of information lays in the
fact that communication being a process of sending and receiving
information, it can not take place effectively if the participants have no
information to exchange. Therefore, it is crucial to have information for one
to participate in the communication process. The above are but samples of
many ways of accessing information. The appropriateness of the source of
information depends on the participants and the nature of information that
they want to access.
Forms of Academic Communication
Academic communication refers to the type of writing and sometimes speech
that is aimed at an academic audience. This could be in form of a course
work given in a particular course during your studies. It could be a
dissertation [thesis/research report] carried out either as partial fulfilment for
the award of a degree, diploma or certificate for a particular university. It
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could be a project or a book or an article that is to be published and read by
the academic community.
In this type of communication, the writer or speaker depends to a large
extent on those academicians that came before him to place his work in the
larger academic context. As such he/she must follow the basic rules that
overtime have become acceptable form of conduct in the field in which
he/she is pursuing his/her academic career. It is important therefore, to
reference properly according to the rules of his/her field.
Referencing is important in academic writing for many reasons. Among these
reasons is the fact that it helps the writer not to commit academic theft
commonly known as plagiarism. Plagiarism refers to the use of other peoples
ideas without acknowledging that you have borrowed someone else’s ideas.
Referencing, therefore, enables the writer or speaker to acknowledge other
writers, scholars and researchers.
The other purpose of referencing is to enable other researchers and readers
generally track the writer’s sources so that they can make an independent
authentication or reassessment id they wish to. As much as this helps the
writer’s audience, it also helps the writer him/herself from the temptations of
telling lies. This means that he/she will rigorously search for sources to inform
his work rather than concocting information.
Referencing is also important to the writer or speaker because it ensures that
he/she is accountable to the scholarly community. When one is writing for his
peers, there is a strong initiative on his part to measure up to the standards
set by his peers. This means that the work produced will be of higher quality.
It also helps the writer to dialogue or hold informed discussions with other
scholars. Simply put, if your essay or article is informed by Karl Marx’s Das
Kapital, those people responding to your article will make judgements on the
essay basing on the common denominator of the social theories as advanced
by Karl Marx.
Another importance of referencing and academic communication is that it
ensures standardisation. This means that proper referencing ensures that the
piece of writing is standard and is similar to other similarly types of writing.
As already stated, this makes the task of communicating easy as the text has
followed the same specifications as other text in the same area of study. For
example, different universities use different referencing styles, which mean
that when one comes a piece of writing that has a particular referencing
style, he/she automatically knows that it comes from a specific field of study
or university.
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For the purpose of this book, two referencing styles will be discussed. These
are the APA and the Harvard styles. This is because they are the most
popular and universal in usage and more importantly, because most
universities in Uganda use them. The APA is short for the American
Psychological Association. It is a citation style that was initially used by the
members of this association, but it has become so popular that it is used in
academic circles all over the world. This is because of it clarity and ease of
use. The Harvard style is another method of citation that was developed by
Harvard University as a style of citation for its schools. Like it is the case with
APA, it has also become popular and is used in academic circles through out
the world. This therefore, makes these two styles of citation the most popular
in the world.
The basics of these two styles are to the large extent similar. The two styles
hold that for clear referencing, the name of the author(s), date of publication,
title of the document including the sub-tiles where applicable, place of
publication, the publisher and any other information depending on the source
are very important.
Though in content of the reference, the two styles may be similar, the
markedly differ in terms of the presentation of this data about a reference. It
may be argued that their difference is in manner and not content. This is
because the difference in the content of the reference is not that significant.
Nevertheless scholarly communication is about novelty and tradition, and as
such the difference in form is an important distinction.
Below is a graphic illustration of the differences between these two styles
from a presentational or formal way. When compiling a reference using the
APA style, it should be presented as shown below per given source:
Book:
If the reference is a book authored by an individual, the reference should
include: name of the author, date of publication in brackets, title of the book,
place of publication and the publisher. If it is co-authored, then the two
names of the author and if more than three authors, then the name of the
lead author followed by etal-Latin for other. This is how the reference must
appear:
Mwangi, Meja. (2000). The Last Plague. Nairobi:E.A.E.P.
Or
Mwangi, E & Mwangi, S (2000) Election Chaos. Nairobi: EAEP.
Or
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Mwangi, E etal (2008) Tribalised Polity: An analysis of Kenyan politics in Early
2008. Harvard. Sage.
If the reference is in-text, that is to say the author referring to another author
inside the body of his writing, then only the author being quoted’s surname
and the year of publication plus the page number are cited. For example,
Mwangi. (2000:123) for the case of APA.
The same formant is followed using the Harvard style, with the only
difference being that the date of publication is not enclosed in parentheses as
shown below:
Hughes, B. 2004. The Enemy Unmasked. Eustis: Truth Triumphant.
In-text referencing using the Harvard style of referencing is slightly different
from the APA style. The surname of the author and the date of publication are
all put in brackets as shown below. (Mwangi 2000)
Journals
Using the APA style, the reference of the articles in journals includes: the
name of the author of the article, the year of publication in parentheses, the
title of the article, the journal, its volume number and the pages of the article
as shown below:
Mawa, M. (2005). “Advertising as a Deceptive and Wasteful Marketing
Strategy: An Ethic Analysis of Persuasive Advertising.” Nkumba Business
Journal, 5, 9-20.
The same reference in the Harvard style would contain all the data presented
above only that the date of publication will not be in parentheses as shown
below:
Mande, M.W. 2004. “The Chairmanship Skills and the Effectiveness of a Board
of Directors.” Nkumba Business Journal, 4, 20-43.
Newspaper Article
When using the APA style the reference of a newspaper article should include
the following: the author of the article, date-year, month and day, title of the
article, the name of the newspaper and the page where the article is to be
found as shown below:
Bogere, H. (2007, September, 12) “Ebola Strikes Congo; Uganda Put on
Alert.” Daily Monitor, p1.
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Harvard deals with the newspaper article like the APA style only that the year
is not in parentheses and the month and day appear at the end as shown
below:
Kironde, E. 2007. “Ouma Rues Cancellation of Mora Fight”. Daily Monitor, 60,
September,12.
Encyclopaedia Articles
When quoting from an article in an Encyclopaedia, the same formant is
followed with minor alterations as will be shown below. The referencing in-
text using the APA style includes the surname of the writer with the year of
publication and the page on which the article is located in parenthesis. This
information is presented in the bibliography as shown below.
Sturgeon, T (1995) Science Fiction. In The Encyclopaedia Americana (Vol. 24,
pp.390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier.
In the case of Harvard, the only difference is that the date of publication is
not put in parenthesis. For example the sample above in the Harvard style
will appear as below.
Sturgeon, T 1995 Science Fiction. In The Encyclopaedia Americana (Vol. 24,
pp.390-392). Danbury, CT: Grolier.
Website
With the spread of the internet as a communication tool and the availability
of a lot of information on the internet, it should be referenced properly. The
preliminaries of citation are the same. You start with the surname of the
author followed by the year of publication, the title of the article, when it was
retrieved and from which organisation and site. In the APA style an internet
source is referenced as shown below.
Makubuya, G. (2006) “Constitutional Reform in Uganda.” In Journal of
Constitutional law. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from
http://www.mak.edu/facultyoflaw.html.
While using the Harvard style the formant is the same only as emphasised
earlier the date of publication is not enclosed in the parenthesis. The
reference above, using the Harvard style would appear as below.
Makubuya, G. 2006 “Constitutional Reform in Uganda.” In Journal of
Constitutional Law. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from
http://www.mak.edu/facultyoflaw.html.
Key Issues to Note about Referencing
When quoting in-text and after the text when compiling a bibliography, the
following points should be taken into consideration. This is basically to make
your work standard as is done by other writers. The points to be taken into
consideration include the following.
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If you are using the style for copy manuscripts, double space all lines. If on
the other hand you are using the style of final manuscripts, single space all
lines and skip a line between each reference. Below are some examples on
how this should be done.
Copy Manuscript
Aliro, K (2004) “Media’s Role in Political Transition: The Challenge of
Manipulative Publicity. Convention Paper.
Fourie, P.J (2007). Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society.
Cape Town, Juta.
Hyden, G, Leslie, M& Ogundimu,F (2002) Media and Democracy in
Africa. Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
Final Manuscript
Aliro, K (2004) “Media’s Role in Political Transition: The Challenge of
Manipulative Publicity. Convention Paper.
Fourie, P.J (2007). Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society.
Cape Town, Juta.
Hyden, G, Leslie, M& Ogundimu,F (2002) Media and Democracy in
Africa. Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
Always arrange your reference list alphabetically by author interfiling books,
articles. Below is an example how this should be done. If the authors you
have quoted are Aliro and Fourie, the reference list should be as shown
below.
Aliro, K (2004) “Media’s Role in Political Transition: The Challenge of
Manipulative Publicity. Convention Paper.
Fourie, P.J (2007). Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society.
Cape Town, Juta.
Hyden, G, Leslie, M& Ogundimu,F (2002) Media and Democracy in
Africa. Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
In case one author has got more than two books or articles that you have
used, such an author should be referenced in such a way that only the first
reference has the authors name and the rest only the date of publication but
indented by half an inch. The examples below can be used to illustrate this
point.
McQuail, D. (1994) Mass Communication Theory.An introduction.3rd
edition London.Sage Publications.
(2004) Mass Communication Theory. Sage, London.
When writing the reference list, it is only the surname of the author that is
written in full. The middle and first names are written as initials. This is
demonstrated below.
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DeFleur,M.L and Dennis,E.E(2002) Understanding Mass
Communication: A Liberal Arts Perspective. Houghton Mafflin,
Boston.
Kemigisha.R, Kanaabi.H and Wakabi.M (2003). “World Press Freedom
Day, Coming of Age, Towards a Self Regulated Media.” Friedrich
Ebert Stiftung, Prompt Printer Ltd, Kla.
In case you have a book or article which does not have an author, then you
should start with the title followed by the date of publication and place and
publisher. This is shown below.
Mass Communication Theory. (2003) Wadsworth, Belmont.
For titles of articles and titles of books, capitalise the initial letter of each
important word in the title and then italicise the title.
Kaberuka, D (2008) “Africa No Longer A Continent of Despair.” In
Sunday Monitor, March 2. No.063
Mafabi, K (2008) “Great Struggle, Comandante en Jefe” In Sunday
Monitor, March 2nd. No. 063
For magazines and newspapers articles include the month and date of
publication as shown below.
Kaberuka, D (2008) “Africa No Longer A Continent of Despair.” In Sunday
Monitor, March 2. No.063
Mafabi, K (2008) “Great Struggle, Comandante en Jefe” In Sunday
Monitor, March 2nd. No. 063
In the case of websites, if the date the page was created is not given use the
initials n.d as shown below.
Searls, D. (n.d) “The Rise of Media Independence.”
@http://www.linuxjournal.com
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Chapter Six
The Internet and Communication: The Value and Bottlenecks of the
Internet in Communication
Introduction
The internet is the new rage of communication in the world. Its importance
and impact is so wide spread that already pundits are predicting that the
future of human interaction, development and actually the future of the globe
depends on how the Internet will be harnessed to solve current and future
problems of the world. It is true that the Internet is the technology of the
future and its impact is so much seen in its application in the world of
communication.
The Internet is synonymous to the World Wide Web commonly referred to as
http://www. It is a connection of computers through the use of software
known as a browser and a computer special language known as hyper text
marker language (html) that enables the computers to receive and send data
amongst them.
Wimmer and Dominick (2003:428-429) trace the origin of the Internet to the
1962 memo written by an MIT scientist discussing “a galactic network”. This
was picked up by the RAND Corporation which by 1964 had come up with a
simple concept of having several computers linked with the ability to send,
route and receive messages. By 1969 ARPANET had been developed and
when the scientific community decided to link computers at various US
universities through the NSFNET, the term Internet was created. In 1989
various corporations joined the net and with the invention of the hypertext
language in 1990 and the browser in 1993 a world wide web was created.
The new form of communication came with several benefits and applications
across all fields of human activities and has consequently been utilised.
However, it impact has been tremendous in the field of communication. It has
changed the way communication practitioners transmit their messages to
their audiences. This is proved by the fact that every newspaper and
broadcast entity; academic institution and business has an online version
along side the mainstream mediums of communication. This is true to all
other organisations both non governmental and public that have websites at
which information about them is provided to the public.
It arrived in Africa and Uganda in the 1990’s. South Africa was the first
country among Africa’s 54 countries to get connected to the Internet. It was
followed by Zambia in 1993, Ghana in 1994 and Uganda in 1995. It was so
popular that by the end of the 1990s 45 out of 54 countries had some form of
internet. The growing demand for the new media technologies in Uganda
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were recognized in 1997 when Parliament passed the Uganda
communications Act. In 2002 the ICT framework was put in place. The
Internet as a tool of communication is now available in almost all the
countries in Africa.
However, the question is whether the Internet has had an impact on the way
Africans in general and Ugandans in particular communicate? Related to the
above question is whether availability and easy access to information that it
entails can have an impact on the easy of communication and particularly the
use of communication and information in the improvement of the lives and
welfare of the Ugandans?
The Internet as a new medium of communication and given its
characteristics: namely; less control, easy access and the fact that it is open
to anyone who has the soft and hard ware, becomes crucial in the
communication process. This is because it mitigates the weakness of the
other mediums of communication, for example radio, that are easy prey to
government control and interference. Tettey observes that, “...the political
space for unfettered operation of the media continues to be non-existent in
so many so called democratic countries.” That the main stream media is
constrained to provide a free public forum for the discussion of political
issues, gives credence to the Internet as an alternative public space through
which the masses can access information and debate issues.
The Internet can play this role in communication through the creation of list
servers/mailing lists through which like-minded people can exchange views
on-line and thereby inform their participation. Another method the Internet
can be used is through web casts, pod casts and blogs. These are on-line
versions of television, radio and print media. Unlike their mainstream cousins,
these are not easily controlled. This means that through such transmission of
information, the masses can get information that informs their decision in
almost any field of human activity.
The use of websites is another way through which the Internet can be used to
foster communication. Dedicated sites for discussion of the political,
economic and human rights issues have been set up by the civil society with
the aim of sensitizing and raising the consciousness of the masses to seek
accountability from their leaders and take decisions from an informed point of
view.
The other likely way the internet can be used for purposes of communication
is through the email and messaging. The social worker who wishes to change
the welfare of the people can send information to the people through these
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mediums and in so doing shape the opinions and improve the lives of the
people.
It is true that the Internet has the potential of advancing the communication
abilities of people. The question is whether this has been attempted in Africa
and with what success? It has played a role in the communication process
because it allows plurality of view points and multiplicity of actors to engage
in social, economical and political debates. Related to that, is the fact that
the Internet is interactive by nature and therefore allows people to comment
on the issues, get feed back to their inquires and most importantly provide a
forum at which issues can be discussed.
The other role that the Internet plays in communication is that it facilitates
free flow of information. Through the use of chat rooms, mailing lists and
websites, people are free to exchange information without any hindrance.
This is because regulation on-line is not as easy as in the main stream media.
The other reason is that on-line communication does not have obstacles that
other types of communication have. For example to have a face to face
conversation there is need for the two parties to be present. In the case of
internet physical presence is not required for communication to take place.
As it has already been pointed out above, the value of the Internet is the fact
that by it nature and technology, is it reduces government interference. That
there is no physical address that the police storm and capture equipment,
means that it is hard to crack down on. For example, if the state does not like
the message or the deliverer of the message, all it has to do is use force by
any means to curtail the communication of that message. This is impossible
with the use of the internet which the government can not control.
The other importance of Internet in communication lies in its sense of
convenience to the public. This includes both the audience and the
communicator. Convenience means that the information will reach the
audience in a timely manner. For example someone in a remote area that is
hard to access, need not to worry about the inaccessibility of his area. This is
because through the use of the Internet and the email, he/she can easily
transmit the information to anyone in any corner of the globe. For the case of
the audience, they can also get the information as it becomes available. For
example international news agencies such as www.bbc.com or
www.cnn.com update their information every minute. This means that one
can get the information literary hot.
The internet allows participatory equality and reduces the information
dualism and the disparities based on gender, class and education. According
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to Mwesige (2004), the internet is a valuable tool in the improvement of
education, health and generally the quality of life of the people. This
recognition informed for example Uganda’s ICT policy 2002 and the
communication acts of 1996 and 1997. An educated and informed public is
crucial to development and makes it easy to mobilize the population to
demand for accountability and developmental projects from its leaders.
The rosy picture of what the Internet can do to facilitate communication can
belie the hardships associated with it. One of the serious constraints is access
and infrastructure in Africa. For example in Uganda by the year 2000, there
were only an estimated 60,000 internet users which improved to 200,000. For
a country with a population of about 30 million people, such coverage is too
small. In fact over 90% of the population in the country has no access to the
Internet. Another problem is to do with the fact that the default language of
the Internet is English. This means that with a very high rate of illiteracy, the
majority of the population can not benefit from the Internet.
Mwesige (2004) argues that the prices of and speed Internet access in
Uganda are too high and too low respectively for most people to afford
considering that around 90% of the population lives on less than 2 dollars a
day. He acknowledges the initiatives such as cyber cafes have brought the
internet and ICT closer to the people in developing countries; the bad news
though, is that these initiatives especially when they are commercially based
may be only increasing the digital divide within poor countries and therefore,
their impact on communication is contestable.
The use of the Internet and the demographics of Internet use are the other
hindrances it faces in as far as its communication role is concerned. Most of
the people, who use the Internet as a source of information, use it for social
and economic reasons and not in search of development oriented data. At
the same time, according to Mwesige (2004), the users are stereotypical and
come from predominantly a class that is either not interested in
developmental discussion. The class/group that uses the Internet frequently
is the under 25s, who use the Internet to send/read emails or to chat and
basically socialize in cyberspace. This means that as much as the Internet is
being used, it is used for other reasons and not developmental sensitization,
thus limiting its role in meaningful communication.
In conclusion, one can argue that since the Internet is the future of
communication and given that technology is changing very fast, its potential
in democracy can not be underestimated. As Africa gets connect and use
saturates the continent as well as prices go down and speeds increase, the
Internet will become a vital tool for ensuring democracy. However, at the
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moment its impact is limited despite its potential. It so far has not been
exploited to the maximum.
Issues to Watch Out For in Internet Communication
The new form of communication has come with several benefits and
applications across all fields of human activities. One such area where the
Internet offered several benefits and applications has been communication
and research. Since the most outstanding constraint of communication and
research has been the cost, the Internet was embraced by many researchers
and communicators because it was quite inexpensive compared to the
traditional methods of data collection. Wimmer and Dominick (2003:430)
argue that a 20 minute telephone interview when studying 400 respondents
could cost about $15,000. The same is applicable to other types of
communicators using the same medium.
Such an amount is out of reach of many researchers and communicators.
They argue that because of cost most researches and communications are
planned around the costs, until the Internet came on board. It does not only
substantially reduce the cost of doing research and communication, but in
some cases eliminates the cost all together. Despite the issue of low cost in
using the Internet as a data collection tools, is the fact that using the Internet
does not require skills and expertise and can be tailored to any project.
Also important to note, is the fact that it has created the possibility of
accessing a variety of materials as most university libraries and research
institutions are on-line. To be taken into consideration also is the fact that
using the Internet can enable the researcher or communicator reach a
population that would be impossible to reach due to geographical and natural
barriers.
As advantageous as it may seem, the Internet is not foolproof as a tool of
communication. It inherently has weakness and obstacles that any one
intending to use ought to be aware of and guard against. Cutting costs may
be admirable but at the end of the day serious issues are raised about
Internet research and communication. Among the many questions that come
to mind are issues of validity and reliability- in other words is the data
collected correct? The other issue is to do with the respondents and
audiences, raising the question of whether the right population has been
used or reached by the message and how this fact can be verified.
Because of the critical issues pointed out above, the quotation, “On-line
research requires a critical eye. ‘Best advise is on-line researcher beware”, is
a timely advice to any potential on-line researcher and communicator. The
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low cost, convenience and accessibility of Internet research and
communication may be tempting, but some element of caution is demanded
from the researchers and communicators if they are to get the best out of
using the Internet as a tool of data collection and communication. If they get
into Internet research and communication with open eyes, some of the
potential obstacles and hardship associated with this new method of data
collection and communication can be minimised or controlled. Therefore, the
following are some of the issues that an on-line research communicator must
watch out for.
One of the critical issues that Internet researchers and communicators should
watch out for is the credibility of the source. In most cases the communicator
does not exactly know who he/she is communicating to and more importantly
whether they have the authority, knowledge and expertise in the subject of
communication. That it is difficult to assess the sources and audiences on the
above points creates a scenario where one collects data from impostors. This
means that the validity, credibility and reliability of the study is
compromised. Since it is difficult to verify the subjects of the study, the
communicator according to Wimmer and Dominick (2003:439) must:
Look at the data to search for outliers. In other
words, if respondents are asked how many hours
they watch TV each day and the average shows 3.5
hours (that is hypothetical) and a few respondents
“more than 15 hours” or something significantly
different from the other respondents, the outlier
can be dropped from the data.
The point that Wimmer and Dominick make is that the communicators must
develop mechanisms that weed out the impostors. If the impostors are
removed from the information, then the credibility of the information is
restored. That is why an on-line communicator must be cautious; least he/she
uses contaminated data or information.
The on-line communicator must be wry of the purpose of the information
he/she gets on the Internet. The Internet communicator must always question
the motives and purpose of the information that he/she comes across on the
Internet. The truth of the matter is whoever gives out information has a
purpose for this transaction. For example information about HIV on
www.unaids.org and the information on the same subject at
www.ministryofhealth.gov.ug may be posted for different reasons. A
government sponsored site may try to projected the country’s fight against
HIV as positive and as such ignore or put less emphasis of the negative issues
of the campaign. This means that the data is contaminated or manipulated to
suit the purposes or intention of the sponsor of the data.
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Another issues to watch out when using the Internet as a communication
tool, is the issue of bias. The point here is that different sites have different
motives of posting their data on the Internet. For example if one visited a site
like www.bmw.com in search for data about the safety of cars, he/she is
likely to get data that praises the BMW company brands. As Smith (2000:1)
states that, “It’s a great media land grab-corporate mergers are dominating
the Internet landscape, affecting what and how you read.” Smith’s
observation may be about News Corporation, but it is applicable to all online
information on the Internet.
The interest of the parent company always has a bearing on what data is
posted on the Internet. And this data in most cases is designed to spruce the
company in an effort to make more money. To mitigate or reduce of the bias,
the communicator must among many things assess the URL addresses of the
sites. For example a .gov indicates that a site is a government department
and a .com is a private company. The communicator should be careful when
accessing data say from a government site of the propaganda nature of the
information and the inherent bias to make the government look better.
Many commentators argue that the Internet has given the words ‘media
jungle’ a new dimension. This is because there are many online sources of
news and information on the Internet. Smith (2000:1) observes that, “The
sheer number of current web sites dedicated to news is staggering: 6000 and
counting.” This implies that there are many on-line sources of not only news,
but also any other kind of information that may be of interest to any
communicator. For example a simple www.google.com search of the key
word research could yield over 1,000,000 results. With literary a ‘jungle’ of
information, the on-line communicator should be wry of getting credible
information from the Internet.
The simple truth is that the on-line communicator is overwhelmed by the
information returned from the search. Paul (1999:38) gives suggestions that
can make any Internet search sensible. These tips include knowing the
difference between the search tools-the human indexed such as
www.yahoo.com and search engines such as www.google.com . Choice of
each depends on what the communicator is searching for on one hand, and
can be helpful to strategies his/her search on the other hand. Other issues to
consider include; thinking through the task of the search, the tool to use,
logical search parameters or protocols and more importantly knowing when
to stop.
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Internet communication is problematic because of the too much information
available and therefore, the communicator should be careful to search for
relevant information. Using search strategies like Boolean, Host, Domain,
Title, Link and URL searches limit and refine the search and consequently
enable the communicator get reliable information from a lot of information on
the web.
An on-line communicator ought to have a critical eye because of the ethical
issues of consent. Wimmer and Dominick (2003:440) raise the issue of
informed consent of the participants before participation and through
debriefing sessions before use of information generated from such
discussions. Such safeguards are not readily available to an on-line
communicator. For example in the case of sending a standard email
questionnaire, such ethical problems may be addressed. The problem is more
complicated when dealing with and using data obtained from bulletin boards,
newsgroups, list servers or chat rooms. The ethical question is whether these
discussions are in the public domain and hence require no consent from the
subjects or are they private and hence need informed consent. The
differences between public and private are fuzzy in cyberspace and the
communicator must be wry of such conflicts.
Another important point to watch out for when using the Internet as a
communication tool is the representation of the sources and audiences. It is
true that the Internet has been able to conquer obstacles of space and time.
What is not true is that in many parts of the world many potential sources
and audiences do not have access to the Internet due to infrastructural and
cost constraints. This means that the information collected or transmitted
using the Internet will in most case be from people who have access and
therefore, the representativeness of the information and audiences will be
compromised. In such a case, the on-line communicator ought to
compliment his/her on-line strategies of information collection with more
mainstream ones that can access those that can not be reached by the
Internet.
One of the handicaps of a communicator is information overload. This is when
the communication process generates a lot of data to the extent that it
becomes very difficult to analyse such data. Wimmer and Dominick
(2003:440) observe:
A researcher who decides to post a questionnaire
on the web should keep in mind that there is a
potential audience of many millions of people who
might respond.
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The potential of a million participants in a discussion points to the fact that
on-line data collection can result into information overload and consequently
information fatigue. These are the issues that call upon the online
communicator to be careful while conducting online communication. In other
words, there are many things to consider and take care of before and after
using the Internet as a communication tool that any oversight can prove to
be catastrophic to the communication process.
The related problem of Internet communication is the time that the process
of communication can take. Ideally the process can take as long as the
communicator wants it to. This is because there is no time limit on how long
the communication process can take on the Internet. Wimmer and Dominick
(2003:439) argue that, “telephone interviews should have a maximum length
of about 20 minutes, but this information is not available for Internet
communicator.” The problem of lack of an indicator as to how long the
communication process can take means that potentially it can go on and on.
The communicator should be cautious of the time schedule in which he/she
must complete the communication process, least they are tempted to
conduct unending communication.
Many people are scared of communicating using the Internet because of the
questions of security on the Internet. Wimmer and Dominick (2003:439)
observe that the fears of the possible users are:
People think their answers will be available to
anyone in the world; and their identity will be used
for the sales of products or services; or they will
receive unsolicited emails from the researcher or
other companies
This is a problem that an on-line communicator must address, since such
fears are real and are hindrance to the possible users in participating in on-
line communication. What the Internet communicator ought to do is assure
the users of how he/she will ensure their identity is kept secret and promise
them of utmost confidentiality.
In the final analysis, it is important to point out that the Internet has
revolutionarized how communication is conducted. This is mainly due to the
advantages that the Internet offers to the on-line communicator. These
include reduced costs, easy access to subjects and convenience to the
subjects to mention but a few. Nevertheless there are problems that the new
tool of communication has as shown in the preceding discussion.
These problems should not discourage the on-line communicator and drive
him away from the Internet as a communication tool. However, he/she should
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be aware of the problems associated with the Internet as a communication
tool and must employ caution in using the Internet for communication.
Caution on the part of the communicator, means that he/she will be able to
mitigate the problems discussed above and thus get the best out of the
Internet as a communication collection tool.
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Chapter Seven
Speech as Communication
Introduction
Speech is one of the most important and frequently used medium of
communication. It should be noted that everyone uses speech to
communicate. And because of its popularity, it is one of those terms that
everyone knows but can not define. Speech is a productive skill of a language
where the speaker uses vocal symbols to pass over a message to his
audience.
Speech is defined by Mulgrave as the faculty of uttering articulate
sounds or words to express thoughts. This means that when we speak, the
aim of doing so is to express or send a message. If this is the reason for
speaking, then it follows that we have to be articulate that is to say be able to
say want we want to say and be able to transmit this message to our
audience. The speaker must then utilise the audible and visible signs
involving the physical component s of the body to communicate ideas.
It should be noted that speech is a form of human behaviour which
utilizes the physical, psychological, semantic, neurological and linguistic facts
to transmit a message. This means that speech is one of the most important
instruments of social control and for that matter it should never be conceived
just as the utterance of sounds and words. Therefore in the process of
making a speech the speaker must note the following:
1. That it is a means of communicating ideas. This means that whenever
we speak, we must have ideas, information or feelings we want to
exchange with the other party. In other words one can not speak for
the sake of speaking; he/she must have a message that they want to
pass over to the audience.
2. Speech is also important in the sense that it helps human beings to
effectively relate to one another in a social environment. That is to say
whether it is a public speech or a conversation, a speech helps one
relate to other human beings in a given context. For example, if one
asks for directions from a stranger, the act of asking ultimately creates
a relationship between them.
3. To communicate effectively, it is imperative that the speaker has a
proper understanding of what he/she wants to convey to the audience.
This means that the speaker must organise what he/she want to say. It
has to do with basic questions such as ‘do you greet first, do you start
with the main point or not, do you use local examples or hard
language?’ when the speaker considers every aspect of his/her speech,
the possibility that they will be effective is high.
4. It is not only important to consider the message you are delivering
while speaking, it is equally important to evaluate the effectiveness of
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your message on the audience. It is important for the speaker to
evaluate and analyse feedback from the audience because this will
help him/her to adjust his mode of delivery for effectiveness. Watch
out for signs of incomprehension, fatigue, uneasiness, attention,
agreement and so on from the audience. These will guide you to know
whether as a speaker, you are effective or not.
5. To be an effective speaker, one must be aware of the principles and
concepts underlying effective speaking in various situations in both the
public and private arenas. There are a number of these principles that
the speaker can utilize. These include adjustment of the voice to suit
the occasion, tone and intonation, use of gesture and many others.
6. It should be noted that an audible and pleasant voice as well as good
speech techniques are an asset that one can utilize to make a living.
For example, some people are hired and given good jobs on the basis
of how they can articulate themselves. On the other hand public
speakers are regularly hired to perform at functions.
7. Related to the above is the fact that good speaking skills are an
absolute necessity for advancement in a career. In professions like
education, law and mass communication, good speech skills is an
essential in the career advancement of an individual.
8. To be an effective speaker, one should be able to adjust and adapt to
the social and physical surroundings of the speech context. A good
speaker is that who analyses the situation and changes accordingly. If
the speech is late in the night and the assumption is that people are
tired, a good speaker is that who adjust say the duration of his/her
speech to fit in the context.
In spite of the many differences among and the many different skills
and techniques that speakers given their different social, economic and
educational backgrounds, there exists a fundamental process of oral
communication. This is because every time a person speaks the same set of
elements come into play, interacting with each other to produce a
communicative event. This is because a communicative event involves
different people with unique needs and interests as speech extends both in
time and space.
Therefore, it is important to examine each aspect separately and then
putting them together because all the elements interact dynamically to
produce the total effect of the speech event. That is to say each element in
some way affects all the elements in what should be called the speech
transaction process. These elements are the following.
The Speaker
Each speech transactions are shaped by four factors according to the
speaker. It is worth noting that it is the speaker who initiates the speech
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transaction. And because of this fact the onus is on him/her to make his/her
message to the audience clear. Therefore, the speaker as a factor in a speech
transaction process must be analysed on the following.
1. The speaker’s purpose in the starting point of any analysis of a speech
event. It should be noted that each speaker has a purpose of why
he/she engages in a speech event. The purpose may be simple as the
wish to socialise or to put across a complicated theory about life. It
could be a desire to advocate a course of action or to alter cherished
customs. It may be the need to entertain or all attention to a problem
or for a number of personal or public ends. What is important to note is
that public speaking is a purposeful action. And the purpose of the
speech controls what and how it is said. Therefore, before one embarks
on a speech, such a person should be clear of what his/her purpose is
in the process.
2. Speaker knowledge is also important in the speech event. The
difference between an excellent speech and a bad one is the level of
mastery that the speaker has over his subject. It is not just the desire
to speak, but the quality of the information that the speaker passes
over to the audience. If the speaker has masterly of content, he/she
will take the audience along. If he/she has surface knowledge of the
content, the audience will feel cheated. Coherence of the speech
depends on what is said, the supporting material, the logical
arguments and the ability by the speaker to weave these into a
spellbinding speech.
3. The speaker’s attitude to self is also important in the speech
transaction process. If the speaker rates him/herself highly, he/she is
likely to come off as arrogant and proud. If the audience perceive such
an attitude from the speaker, they will be turned off, which will affect
their reception of the message. On the other hand, if he/she rates
himself lowly, he will make him/herself appear ill at ease and lacking
confidence. This will make the audience non-receptive of the message.
The key to effective speaking is the ability for the speaker to project
him/herself as someone who has to be listened to.
4. The speaker’s attitude to the audience also has an impact on the
effectiveness of the speech. This is because his/her attitude to the
listeners determines how and what he/she says. If the speaker is
patronising to the listeners, the listeners will resent being treated like
children and will develop a negative attitude to the speaker and the
message. If he/she treats them with respect, they will accept him and
take in what he is telling them. However good your message is, the
attitude that the listeners think the speaker has towards them,
determines how the speech is received.
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5. The attitude of the speaker to the subject is also important in
determining the effectiveness of the speech. If the speaker is
interested in the subject, this passion will be reflected in how he
handles him/herself. The enthusiasm will be passed over to the
audience making them interested in the message. If the speaker is not
interested in the subject, the speech will be boring. For example, a
Literature scholar talking about his/her favourite writer will giving an
interesting speech that will be enjoyed by even technology majors.
But the same speaker will fail miserable if he was to speak on
architecture to the same audience. Therefore, to speak effectively,
choose a topic that you are interested in.
6. Another factor that has an impact on the effectiveness of a speech is
the degree of credibility of the speaker. The question in the minds of
the audience is always: ‘does the speaker qualify to speak to them
about that topic,’ related to that is the question of whether the speaker
has a sound track record that can make the audience believe in him. In
simple words, if a speaker has a history of lying, this history will have
an impact on how his message is received. For example, many people
distrust politicians and do not believe what they say because they
always tell lies. Likewise, if the speaker had a bad record, this record
will have an impact on the effectiveness of his speech.
The Message
In all speech-communication processes the message plays an important role
in the effectiveness of the message. The message is evaluated in terms of
the appropriateness of the content, structure and style to the audience. The
following are some of the issues to consider in the message in terms of how
the message can lead to the effectiveness of the speech event.
1. It is obvious that every message that is transmitted to an audience has
content or is about something. The content of a message includes
information, data, ideas and your feelings, attitudes and
interpretations of the same ideas, information and ideas to the
audience. This means that different kinds of meanings, interpretations
and analysis make up the content of the speech. Therefore, effective
content is that which addresses the needs of the audience. It should be
a kind of content that is acceptable to the audience, in terms of a
course of action you want them to pursue or an attempt to challenge
the beliefs that they have. This means that the choice of what to talk
about is very important if the speaker is to be effective.
2. It is true that content is important in a speech transaction process. But
equally important is the way the content is structured. Actually there is
a saying that ‘it is not what is said but how it is said’ that makes a
speech effective. Structure of a speech refers to how it is organised.
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The speaker must provide a pattern that the speech will follow if the
audience is to understand him. He should organise his speech in terms
of what he/she will say first, secondly and possibly last. He/she could
number his/her points or use transitional phrases like firstly, next etc.
The pattern could be simple or complex as the speaker may deem
necessary. Nevertheless, what is important is for the speaker to
provide a recognisable pattern for the benefit of the listeners.
3. Style in speech refers to the selecting and arrangement of words to be
used in a speech. It also involves the labelling of the speaker as a
certain type of person. The speaker can choose to use a style that is
personal, impersonal, liberal, plain or philosophical. This will affect the
vocabulary, the sentence structure, the imagery etc. used to convey
the impression of the speaker’s emotions, ideas, attitudes about the
subject. Note that the type of audience determines or should have an
input in what style is chosen by the speaker. It is useless to use a
philosophical style on peasant and a simple style when talking to
university dons.
The Listener
Like the speaker, the listener is an important component in a speech
transaction process. Listeners come to a speech event with expectations,
goals and purposes to be fulfilled by the speech. These always determine
how they receive and respond to the massage. It is important to consider the
following when analysing a speech from the point of view of the listener.
1. The purpose of the listener to attend or to be part of the
communication event must always be put into consideration. The
listener gets into a transaction in search for rewards. These could be
a wish to be entertained, informed, advised or guided. These
constitute the expectations which in turn control how they respond
to the speech. If the speaker violates the expectations of the
listeners, such a speaker stands the chance of being ineffective. For
example, if people have come to be entertained at a concert, and
someone starts telling them about salvation, as much as salvation is
good, he/she will be booed because such an audience is not
expecting such a message. The other case can be an anti-
government crowd being told that the government is actually very
good. Such a speaker risks being pelted with stones because the
purpose of the audience was not to be told that the government is
good. Therefore, to be an effective speaker, know what your
audience expect and give it to them.
2. The listener’s knowledge and interest in the subject has an influence
on how the message will be received. The speaker should always
endeavour to address the listener where ‘they are’. Where the
listeners’ are is determined by their interest and knowledge about
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the subject. An audience with little knowledge about the subject is
confused with technical terms, while a highly knowledgeable
audience is bored with an elementary speech. This calls for audience
analysis of the audience by the speaker to know exactly what they
know and what they can appreciate. It also calls upon the speaker to
gauge the sophistication of the audience and choose the appropriate
content to suit them.
3. The speaker is also at task to estimate the listening skills of the
audience if he/she is to be effective in his speech delivery process.
The speaker must constantly survey the audience for signs of
understanding, puzzlement, of acceptance or rejection of the
message. These are called feedback reactions. At all times the
speaker must ensure that the listeners are with him. This means
that he/she must be ware of the listener’s ability to listen to him/her
effectively. The speaker must be creative and mindful of what must
be done to enhance effective listening. Variation of tone, voice and
use of humour can be effective. But more importantly be ware of the
length time a particular audience can endure to listen effectively.
4. The attitude of the listener towards him/herself, the speaker and the
subject has a significant impact on the effectiveness of the
message. This is because people seek messages and speakers are in
agreement with their point of view. Such messages and speakers
will be listened to effectively and the messages will be retained for
longer that messages on subjects or speakers they do not like.
The Channel
All speech communication events are affected for better or worse by the
channel through which the speech is transmitted. The speech transaction
process links the speaker and the listener through a particular channel.
Therefore, it is upon the speaker to choose the best channel to carry his
message to the listeners depending on the message and the audience that is
targeted. The following are the most appropriate channels that the speaker
can choose from.
1. The verbal channel is that which uses the vocal chords and the
manipulation of lips, mouth and teach to produce sounds that carry the
message to the listeners. This carries the words, phrases and
sentences that the message is encoded in. when using this channel the
speaker can use the spoken or the written form. At the speaker should
also put in mind is that he/she should always choose the best words to
pass over his message and also either spell or pronounce them
properly.
2. The other channel that the speaker can choose to use is the visual.
This involves the use of pictorial forms such as diagrams, charts,
graphs and pictures. This is in line with the old Chinese saying that a
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picture is worth a thousand words. Any speaker should utilise the
visual forms of communication to enhance his message.
3. The third channel that a speaker can choose to transmit his/her
message in the aural. In linguistic terms this is called the paralinguistic
medium. It involves the variation of the voice, the tone and other voice
modulations by the speaker to drive home his message. In other words
it is not what is said but how it is said that determines the message
that the listener gets. For example, if someone says you are stupid
while laughing, he may not mean that you are daft and you the listener
may also not take it as an insult. This is because the aural quality of
the statement gives it a different meaning.
Note that an effective speech is one in which the speaker manages to
integrate the three channels discussed about in the transmission of the
message. This is desirable because then, the different channels reinforce and
complement each other in making the message effective.
The Communicative Situation
All speech communication events to a larger extent are affected by the
physical and social settings or context in which they take place. In other
words, where and atmosphere in which the speech is conducted matters a lot
in determining whether the message is effective or not. The communicative
situation involves the physical and social contexts.
1. The physical setting is believed influence the expectancy as well as the
readiness of the listeners to listen and respond to the speech. For
example people waiting for the service in church have different
expectations from those in a theatre, so are those at a political rally.
Whereas those at a political rally do not mind external influence of
noise, those in church and theatre will be put off if there is a lot of
noise interferences. In speech delivered at the road side does not give
the speaker the same levels of effectiveness as on that is delivered in
a sound proof five star hotel conference room. It is upon the speaker to
choose a good physical location to deliver his/her speech if he /she is
to be effective.
2. The social context refers the distinguishing features between the
audience and the speaker. These features could be educational, class,
age, power or etiquette. The assumption that is to large extent true is
that if the speaker and the listener have certain things in common
such a education, class or race, them the listeners are more receptive
to the speaker.
Skills for Effective Speech Making
Some people believe that speaking and oratory is a talent and people are
born with the ability to speak well while others are not. The truth though, is
that as much as different people have different abilities, even though who are
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not good at making speeches can improve on their abilities through practice
and knowledge of those elements that contribute to a good speech.
Therefore, like it is possible to develop the writing skill, the speaking skill can
also be improved when attention is given to the following points.
1. Modulation of the voice is the first point that any speaker must take
into consideration if his/her speech is to be effective. Any speaker who
wants to be effective must use his/her voice very well depending on
the venue of the speech and the audience he /she is addressing. The
voice should not be too soft and not too loud. If it is soft people will
strain to follow what is being said and this will mean that the speech is
not effective. If it is too loud, they will be irritated and will channel the
energy they have used to understand what you were said to hate you.
If you are going to use a public address system, be careful for wind
interferences that can be irritating to the listeners. In short use the
right volume of voice that is suitable to the audience and venue of the
speech.
2. The choice of words is also important in effective speaking. The words
that are to be used in a speech should convey the message as simply
and effectively as possible without any distortations. It is advisable to
use simply words that are understandable to all. Avoid words that have
double meaning or those whose pronunciations are complicated. For
example be ware of words like ‘hurt’ and ‘hut’. When you are to sue
such words be careful that it is the right pronunciation, otherwise the
meaning will be lost.
3. Calmness and confidence is another important factor in successful and
effective speech making. No listener will take seriously a panicking and
nervous speaker. So it pays to be calm, collected and confident while
giving a speech. Confidence comes with preparation of what you are
going to say as well as adequate knowledge of the content of the
subject of the speech. If possible rehearse and revise the speech
before actually presenting it.
4. The other important factor that should be taken into consideration is
the choice of an appropriate tone suitable to the topic of discussion.
The tone you adopt should be in line with the subject and context of
the speech. For example if you are talking at a funeral attempt to be
calm, mournful, respectful and serious. If you are a farewell party of a
friend, be relaxed and humorous and not serious as if you where in
church or at a funeral.
5. To get endeared to the audience requires that you present yourself as
simple and not pompous. It is better to use simple language and
sentence structures in the delivery of your speech. Try to appear like
you are one of them and avoid showing then audience that you are
different from them. In fact try to make the audience like and accept
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you as one of them. Show respect to your audience despite their
educational and social class they belong to. Whatever provocation
never hurt the feelings of the audience by insulting or humiliating them
in any way.
6. Make your speech coherent and as accurate as possible. Your points
should be accurate, precise and to the point. Do not beat about the
bush. Avoid generalisations and structure your message in a simple
and logical sequence that the audience can follow easily. To ensure
that your meaning is grasped by the audience, use visual, aural and
other extra linguistic features to drive home your points.
7. It is pays to be smart and presentable when giving a speech. Being
smart and presentable does not mean dressing fashionably and
expensively. It means dressing in a way that reflects seriousness and
responsibility on your part. It should be a model of dressing that
communicates to the audience that you respect and take them
seriously. Never dress provocatively as this diverts the attention from
the speech to your body and it is worse when you are woman.
Public Speaking
One of the many types of speaking is public speaking. This is a type of
speech or speech context where the speaking addresses a large audience.
The term ‘large audiences’ is hard to define, but it essentially means a group
of people totalling over 20 and composed of different categories and
characteristics. The limit is infinitive for example a radio present can
effectively speak to millions of people. In public speaking it is easy to
conceive the idea but very hard to deliver. One writer has said that:
“speeches are like babies; easy to conceive but difficult to deliver.” Basing on
the above quotation, public speakers must consider the following to ease the
difficulty of delivering speeches.
1. To be an effective public speaker it is important for one to have the art
of persuasion. This means that you should be able to get people not
only to listen to you but also to accept what you are telling them and
consequently modify their behaviour or way of thinking about issues
being communicated.
2. The other strategy that the speaker must adapt is to use techniques
that can enable him capture and retain the attention of the audience
from the start to finish during the speech. It is of no use to continue
talking if the audience is not paying attention. To capture and retain
the attention of the audience, the speaker can use both verbal and
non-verbal dynamics such as gestures, telling stories, use of humour to
mention but a few in his speech.
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3. The speaker must also know his audience. Knowledge of the audience
will help him choose and arrange the content of his/her speech in a
manner that is effective. It also involves choice of appropriate
language and other speech techniques.
4. The speaker must be aware of the general tendency among people to
resist change. This means that he/she must be careful in cultivating
them to believe or agree with his point of view. This involves the use of
the basics of persuasion such as appeal to authority, presentation of a
scaring alternative if they do not change to mention but a few.
5. There are cases when a speaker is faced with a hostile audience. For
example if you were to give a speech to staunch Catholics about
contraceptives, it is plausible to assume that such an audience will be
hostile to your message. In such a situation a good speaker should
gain entry by using something that is popular and from there persuade
the listeners to take on his point of view.
Factor to Consider in Public Speeches
For a speaker to give a good speech, he/she must be aware of the following
components that inform the speech. These are the following:
The Speaker
The speaker must be aware of and take care of the following factors to
ensure that his/her speech is effective:
1. He/she should know the audience. This is in terms of the composition
of and the characteristics of the audience. For example, what is the
dominant religion, tribe, are they educated or not and many other
issues. This will help him/her in the choice of the content, the language
to use and the angle he/she is to take during the speech.
2. The speaker must have effective command of the language. It is true
that not everyone has the same command of language. But it is
important that a speaker has a good grasp of the language. This is
because the message is delivered through language and therefore, if
one can not use the language effectively then his/her message will fail
to reach the audience.
3. The speaker must be aware of the techniques of public speaking. This
may include the use of intonation, gestures, using stories and many
others. Acquisition of these techniques makes it very easy for the
speaker to pass over his/her message effectively.
4. The speaker must equally have a sense of organisation. This is both
physical and mental. This has to do with how he organises and
structures his message. For example, what will come first, next and
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last. It involves how he/she dresses, uses the stage and so forth. A well
organised person motivates people to listen to unlike someone who is
disorganised.
5. The good speaker is that who has a sense of purpose. In other words
the speech should clearly indicate that is taking the audience to some
place. Therefore, the speaker must clearly show the benefits that the
audience are going to gain in listening to him/her given that they have
alternatives that they have foregone. For example the speech may
provide them with information, skills, and techniques or for pure
entertainment. Whatever, the reason the audience must clearly see
the benefit of listening to the speaker.
The Audience
Like the speaker, the audience is very important in the effectiveness of a
speech. This means that the audience must be evaluated by the speaker in
terms of the following if his/her communication is to be effective.
1. The special interests of the audience must be put into consideration. In
other words, the speaker must ask him/herself is the speech is going to
satisfy the interests of the audiences. This is accomplished when the
speakers ask questions such as: ‘why are they listening, what they
want to achieve, how I can give them what they want?’ Such questions
will help the speaker understand the motivation of the audience in the
speech.
2. The speaker must also consider the level of formal education of the
audience. This is important in the sense that it helps him/her choose
the most appropriate language and content as well as the sequencing
of this content for effective delivery of the message.
3. The size of the audience must also be taken into consideration. The
speaker must measure the audience and determine the best voice
volume to use. For example if the audience is large- probably more
than 1000 people in the hall, the speaker must speak loudly otherwise
some will not hear. In the case were the audience is small shouting at
the top of one’s voice may instead irritate the audience. Therefore, the
size of the audience and the venue of the speech are important if the
speech is to be effective.
4. The speaker must find out the cultural background of the audience.
This is because cultural background has an impact on the reception of
the message. For example, if the audience was predominantly Muslim,
using images of dogs and pigs may offend them, and therefore, make
them hostile to the speaker.
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5. The other issue to consider are the interests of the audience. The
speaker must ask him/herself what it is that the audience what to hear,
why they have foregone other activities to be in the meeting? These
will give the speaker an idea of what he/she should talk about and
probably how. People who have a valid reason to listen to the speaker
are mostly likely to be attentive.
The Speech
The goal of public speaking is to impart knowledge. In this sense public
speaking should be considered as a ‘teaching event’ where the audience has
come to receive new, interesting and useful information. Therefore, the
speech itself is very important. The speaker must evaluate the speech in
terms of:
1. The purpose of the speech. One should ask him/herself what it is that
he/she wants to pass over to the audience. Is he/she interested in
providing information, changing attitudes and behaviour or entertain
the audience. It should be noted that the purpose determines whether
the speech is effective or not and to a larger extent how it is
presented.
2. The content of the speech is equally important. It should be noted that
there are many topics that one can talk about. But ultimately want is
talked about during the speech should be determined by the purpose,
the nature of the audience and other facts deemed necessary for the
speech to be effective.
3. Language is the most important aspect in speech delivery. For this
matter the language that the speaker is to use should be evaluated in
terms of content, purpose and nature of the audience. If this is not
done, the speaker may deliver a wonderful speech which unfortunately
his/her audience can not understand.
4. The organisation and the structure of the speech is another critical
area. This involves the manner of how ideas are arranged and
presented. The guiding principle in this case should be logic. The
different parts must be organised in such a way that one leads into the
other.
The way the purpose, content, language and structure of a speech are
conceived determine to a larger extent the effectiveness of the speech. It
does not matter whether it is a demonstrational speech in which the audience
is show how to do something to the audience, a description speech where the
speaker is describing the properties or characteristics of an object or an
explanatory speech where a new and often abstract concept is being
explained to the audience, the above issues must be addressed.
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Structuring a Persuasive Speech
Persuasive speeches are probably the most lively and emotional speeches
that any one can give. This is because a good speech can convince the
audience of a belief or a concept and in the process motivate them into
action as this new belief inspires and encourages them to change. For this to
happen, the speaker must establish credibility by careful use of language in
the delivery of the speech. This is in the sense that the speech must show
respect to the audience, language and the purpose of speaking. For a
persuasive speech to be effective it must be designed using the following
formants.
1. The problem-solution design is that where the speaker identifies a
problem that the audience are not aware of. After which the speech is
structured in such a way that the speaker after introducing a problem
proceeds to give a solution to the problem
2. The statement-of-reason design is where it expected that the
audience are aware of and agree with a topic. However, they need
more justification to change their minds or behaviour or perform the
required action. The speaker in this case introduce the fact that they
agree on and then systematically give reasons to support whatever
course of action he/she wants.
3. The comparative –advantages design is where the audience is not
clear of the many alternatives or options they are to take. What the
speaker does to facilitate their choices, is to compare and contrast the
advantages and disadvantages of the two possibilities.
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Chapter Eight
Listening As Communication
Introduction
Listening is a receptive skill of any language that is very important in
communication. It is the process through which people acquire information,
knowledge and data from the speakers. The importance of listening is two
fold. On one hand, it enables people acquire information that they can later
use in writing and speaking. On the other hand they enable the audience
participate fully in a communication event. However, listening is useful only if
people listen carefully and creatively; picking out positive aspects, problems,
difficulties and tensions, is the most fundamental skills in communication and
therefore we should try to understand what can hinder listening, so as to
improve our listening skills.
Listening Barriers
On-off listening is the first barrier to effective listening. This comes from the
fact that most people think four times faster than the average person can
speak. Thus the listener has about 3⁄4 minute “space thinking time” in each
minute of listening. Sometimes she/he uses this extra time to think about
her/his own personal affairs and troubles instead of listening, relating and
summarizing what the speaker has to say. This can be overcome by paying
attention to more than just the speech, but also watching body language like
gestures, hesitation and other extra linguistic aspects demonstrated by the
speaker.
The second barrier to effective listening is red-Flag listening. To some people,
certain words are like a red flag to a bull. When they hear them, they get
upset and stop listening. Some words are so “loaded” that they tune out the
speaker immediately. The listener loses contact with the speaker and fails to
develop an understanding that with the speaker.
Open ears – closed mind listening is another barrier to effective listening.
Sometimes “listeners” look at people intently, and seem to be listening
although their minds may be on other things or far away. They drop back
into the comfort of their own thoughts. They get glassy-eyed, and often a
dreamy or absent-minded expression appears in their faces. If we notice
many participants looking glassy-eyed in sessions, we have to find an
appropriate moment to suggest a break or change in pace.
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Too-deep-for me listening is a situation when listening to ideas that are too
complex and complicated, we often need to force ourselves to follow the
discussion and make a real effort to understand it. Listening and
understanding what the person is saying, might result in us finding the
subject and the speaker quite interesting. Often if one person does not
understand, others do not either and it can help the group to ask for
clarification or an example if possible.
Don’t-rock-the-boat listening is another barrier to effective listening. People
do not like to have their favourite ideas, prejudices, and points of view
overturned; many do not like to have their opinions challenged. So, when a
speaker says something that clashes either with what they think or believe as
right or acceptable, they may unconsciously stop listening or even become
defensive. Even if this is done unconsciously, it is better to listen and find out
what the speaker thinks, in order to get the other side of the question.
Therefore, when people are listening they should try to avoid the pitfalls to
effective listening that are discussed above. They should adopt the following
good listening behaviour and minimise the negative listening behaviour listed
below. A positive listener will show interest in the speaker and subject of
discussion. He/she will try to be understanding and express empathy to the
speaker. If there is anything you do not agree with note it down and bring it
up during the time of question. And lastly try to cultivate the ability to be
silent when silence is necessary
On the negative side avoid the following bad behaviours of listening. These
are: do not rush the speaker, argue with the speaker in the course of the
speaker, and interrupt as he/she speaks as this will derail him/her from the
speech. Never pass judgement too quickly in advance and give advice unless
it is requested by the other person and never jump to conclusions about the
speech. Absorb all the speaker has to say and if there is anything to
challenge, do it at the end. This is because at the end of the speech you are
in a better position to challenge what the speaker said from an informed
position.
Facilitative Listening Skills
Paraphrasing is one of the positive listening skills. Paraphrasing is a
fundamental listening skill. It is the foundation for many other facilitative
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listening skills, including mirroring, gathering, and drawing people out. This is
when the speakers message is transferred into the listeners own words or
understanding. Preface your paraphrase with a comment that will make the
paraphrase your own later on. When you have completed the paraphrase,
look for the speaker’s reaction to find out if you have actually got his
message
When listening to hard to comprehend subjects try using the ‘drawing people
out’ skill. Drawing people out is a way of supporting people to take the next
step in clarifying and refining their ideas. It sends the speaker this message,
I am with you; I understand you so far. Now tell me a little more. Drawing
people out is most effectively used along with paraphrasing, not instead of
paraphrasing. There is nothing rewarding to a speaker than the perception
that people are listening to what he/she is saying.
Mirroring is another important listening skill. Mirroring captures people’s
exact words. It is highly formal version of paraphrasing, in which the listener
repeats the speaker’s exact words. Some people need this degree of
precision in order to feel that they are truly being heard. When used well, it
enables the listener to move at the same pace as the speaker and in doing
so; the listener gets a lot out of the speech communication process.
Stacking is another important listening skill. Stacking is a procedure for
helping people take turns when several want to speak at once. Stacking is a
four-step procedure. First, the speaker asks those who want to speak or to
ask a question in response to his/her speech to raise their hands. Then
she/he creates a speaking order by assigning a number to each person.
Third, she/he calls on people when their turn to speak or ask questions
arrives. When the last person has spoken, the speaker checks to see if
anyone else wants to speak. If so the speaker does another round of
stacking. This is of benefit to both the speaker and the listener because it
gives immediate feedback. The speaker’s points which were not clear can be
addressed immediately. For the listener any doubt is cleared for him/her
immediately.
Tracking is another important listening skill. Tracking means keeping track of
the various lines of thought that are going on simultaneously within a single
discussion. It is a three-step process. For example, suppose a group is
discussing a plan to hire a new employee. Two people are talking about roles
and responsibilities. Two others are discussing financial implications, and
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another two are reviewing their experiences with previous employee. In such
cases, people need help keeping track of all that’s going on, because they
are focused primarily on clarifying their own ideas.
Encouraging can equally lead to effective listening. Encouraging is the art of
creating an opening for people to participate, without putting any one
individual on the spot on one hand. On the other hand it encourages the
speaker to continue speaking as it shows the listener’s interest in what
he/she is saying. Body reactions like nodding the head and silence are some
of encouraging gestures that can do wonders in a listening situation.
Though intentional silence is highly underrated, it is quite effective in
listening. It consists of a pause, usually lasting no more than few seconds,
and it is done to give the speaker that brief extra “quiet time” to discover
what they want to say. With eye contact and body language, stay focused on
the speaker Say nothing not even “hmm” or “uh huh.” Do not even nod or
shake your head. Just stay relaxed and pay attention. If necessary, hold up a
hand to keep others from breaking the silence. Sometimes everyone in the
group is confused or agitated or having trouble focusing. At such times,
silence may be very helpful. Say, “let us take a minute to think what this
means to each of us”.
Listening for common ground is another important listening skill. Listening
for common ground is a powerful intervention when group members are
polarized. It validates the group’s areas of disagreement and focuses the
group on their areas of agreement. It is a four-step process. First, indicate
that you are going to summarise the group’s differences and similarities.
Second, summarise the differences. Third, note areas of common ground.
Lastly, check for accuracy.
For speakers developing and employing the skill of active listening helps
create an atmosphere in which members feel they are an important part of
the group. When people experience active listening they are more inclined to
bring their skills, experiences, expertise and ideas into the group relationship.
Active listening is more than simply listening to someone. It is absorbing
what is being said and letting the speaker know that she or he has been
heard. It is about ensuring that the speaker feels “listened to. The following
are some of the things that the listener must do and the speaker must watch
out for to ensure that the communication situation is effective.
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Facial expression gives clues on the speaker. Our faces express our
emotions. Allow it to do so during a session. The speaker needs to be able to
quickly decide which emotions she/he will/won’t express, always keeping in
mind the safety of the group. The listener should use his/her face as a means
of communication to provide the speaker with a feedback.
Establish eye contact with the speaker shows that the listener is interested in
what the speaker is saying. In other words it encourages a speaker to
continue because it makes him/her to feel appreciated and the speech an
important transaction. In this way the listener offers support to the speaker.
This establishes mutual respect and understanding between the two parties.
Watch for the body language of the speaker. The way a listener or speaker
stands, sits, and holds her/his body, transmits a message of interest or
boredom. When listening to someone, the listener should lean towards that
person slightly, turning her/his body towards the speaker, indicating a
relaxed and attentive stance
Pay attention to the speaker’s gestures because these are supplementary to
the speaker’s message. Helpful gestures include open handed circular actions
which encourage participation; an open hand while questioning or clarifying;
a reaching-out gesture supports a speaker; an open hand or palm towards
the speaker says “over to you”
Give the speaker some personal space. Leave a comfortable distance
between the speaker and the listener. Lack of space or intrusion into
someone’s personal space can cause discomfort. Some people who feel that
they are being intruded upon, may begin to move back to maintain her/his
personal safe space and many people get distracted and nervous when non-
intimate enters their personal space
Timing is also important. Do not interrupt a speaker unnecessarily. By using
a combination of verbal and non-verbal active listening skills a listener can
judge when best to interject. Otherwise, unnecessary interventions will put
the speaker on defensive and interrupt the flow of his/her message. If there is
a point you feel strongly about, note it down and raise it during the time of
question. Never cat call, jeer or whistle when someone is talking. It is not only
uncultured, but also unnecessary because there is always chance to disagree
with the speaker in a more constructive manner.
There are cultural and gender variations in how non-verbal language is used
and in the meaning assigned to different movements. Watch women and
men operating in groups, to learn the gender variations (for example, women
more so than men tend to reach over and touch someone when they are
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engaged in dialogue). When working with people from different cultural
backgrounds take extra care about getting these messages accurately (for
example, some age groups or ethnic groups may find mixed sex groups
difficult). Body language message may be clarified with the sender for
example, “you are sitting with arms folded and look very cross are you ok?”
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Chapter Nine
Writing Letters and Other Documents
Introduction
Many people believe that letter writing is an art and a talent that either one
has or does not. The facts that support this assertion is the general
observation that some people write good letters and others do not. In fact it
is common for those who are not good at letter writing to consult and employ
the services of those who are good at it.
The truth of the matter is that letter writing in neither an art nor a
talent. It is all about knowledge of the aspects and characteristics of letter
writing and constant practice to perfect the process. But before we get at the
tips of writing good letters, it is important to define what a letter is. The
Oxford International Dictionary defines letter as, “a message that is written
down or printed on paper and usually sent to somebody.”
A piece of communication or a message or a missive through which
one party communicates to the other would be an apt definition of a letter.
There are basically two types of letters and these are differentiated by the
social distance between the writer of the letter and the addressee or the
person he/she is writing to on one hand, and the purpose of the writing on
the other hand. Generally there are two types of letters and these are:
Informal Letters
Informal letters are sometimes referred to as personal letters or friendly
letters. This is a type of correspondence or communication between two
parties or partners whose social distance is close. The relationship between
the two parties is informal or personal. The purpose of writing is equally
personal and informal. This is because the people that the writer writes to are
close to him/her. Such people may include the following: members of one’s
family, friends and acquaintances.
The main characteristic of this type of letter is the informality of the
language and expressions used. This is based on the premise that the writer
is known to these people and therefore there is no need for him/her to stand
at ceremony with them so to speak.
Another distinguishing feature of personal letters is the subject of
these letters. Normally, the assumption is that the writer’s purpose of writing
is of a personal nature. Basically what this means is that you are either
informing or requesting for something that the person can grant personally.
NOTE: Will look at the nature of informal language later on.
Formal / Official letters
These are sometimes also referred to as business letters. They are
letters, which are written to persons whose main relationship or connection
with the addressee is an official one. Such instances include: writing to a
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head of an institutions asking for a vacancy, making a formal apology, or a
requisition and as many cases as will be described later.
The main characteristic of formal letters is the adherence to formal
language. The assumption is that there is zero social distance between the
writer and his/her correspondent and as such, it calls for utmost respect and
the need to ensure that there is less familiarity. Therefore the language
ought to be neutral.
The other main characteristic of a formal letter is it adherence to a
formulaic formant. This means that a formal letter must at all times follow a
specific arrangement, and with specific aspects. Any divergence from this
accepted formant means that the letter is wrong. It is important to be aware
of these aspects, so that when one writes-and there is no doubt that in one’s
professional life time, he/she will write many of such letters- does it according
to accepted standards and thus saves him/her self embarrassments.
Differences between Formal and Informal Language
The English Language is quite uniform in the sense that the words, their
meanings and spellings rarely change. However, as a language, English has
strict rules governing its usage. One of these has to do with choosing either
to use the formal or informal option of the language. It should be noted that
the differences between formal and informal English is not in the grammar,
nor the vocabulary, but in the context of usage in terms of the content of the
expression.
This gives raise two types of English Language namely: the formal and
the informal. A formal piece of writing refers to that piece that is meant for
non-personal audiences. In other words when the piece of communication is
meant for officially transacted business, it is said to be formal. This means
that all official or formal letters make use of the formal variety of the English
Language.
On the other hand informal writing is that piece that involves unofficial
business between the communicator and the audience. It is meant for the
people with whom the writer is familiar. All letters to friends, members of
one’s family and all acquaintances use a variety of the English Language that
is informal.
The differences between formal and informal language is in the context of
use of the English Language. This means that there are things that are
acceptable in informal language that are not acceptable in formal language.
These include the following:
1. Abbreviations are acceptable in informal writing and not in formal
writing. Therefore, when writing a formal letter, try as much as possible to
avoid abbreviation, unless those that are acceptable like c.c which is the
abbreviation for copy to: used in a situation where the letter is copied to
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several people though it is addressed to someone specific, or p.s which is the
abbreviation for post script: that is to say providing further information after
completing the letter, in case you are writing a formal letter.
2. Clips are not accepted in formal pieces of writing. Clips are the shortened
form of words such as can’t for cannot or don’t for do not. These clips are
acceptable in informal pieces of writing because they reflect laxity that is
associated with familiarity.
3. Slang are not accepted in formal pieces of writing, while they could be
accepted in an informal piece of writing. Slang is a word whose meaning is
restricted to a social group and normally used as a form of identification to
that group. Therefore, using it in a formal piece of writing is assuming that
everyone knows it meaning, which in most cases is wrong. However, in
informal writing, given the closeness of the audience and the writer, it is a
right assumption that the meaning of such a word is known to both parties.
4. Colloquialism is not accepted in formal pieces of writing, whereas it could
be accepted in informal writing. Colloquialisms are expressions that are
considered rude in polite society. Therefore, given the fact that in official
pieces of communication, the relationship between the writer and the
intended audience is not a close relationship, colloquialism an aspect of
informal language is unacceptable.
5. Jargon which are technical language normally associated to a particular
profession are sometimes accepted in both formal and informal letters. The
point to be noted here, is that if one is writing about a professional or
technical subject, it is sometimes hard to get synonyms of some key
technical terms, which means that these jargons can be used in all the types
of letters
Personal, Unofficial, Informal or Friendly Letters
As stated earlier a personal or unofficial or an informal letter is the type of
letter that is a piece of communication between parties whose social distance
is minimal or people who are close to each other. These may include letters
to friends, family and acquaintances.
As it has also been stated, the main characteristic of the personal
letter is the informality of the language. The assumption is that since you are
writing to someone personally known to you or in most cases someone you
are close to, you need not to be very formal. The case in point is when you
are writing to a friend or a relative, these are people you are familiar with.
The truth of the matter is that there are different types of informal
letters as has been hinted upon earlier. However, different kinds of informal
letters follow almost similar style, though with some minor modifications and
differences. An informal letter: like the one written to a brother, sister, father,
mother or a friend, will be similar in as far as the style is concerned. Note,
though that there will be similarities in the two examples of letters mentioned
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above; there will also be degrees of differences. This is because informality
itself has different degrees and shades, that a letter to a friend or a brother
may not look exactly like that to one’s parent. Nevertheless, there are
aspects that these will share. And these aspects that all informal letters share
are what constitute the informal style of letter writing.
Aspects of an Informal Letter
The following are some of the elements or aspect of style that make an
informal letter different from the other types.
1. The Address and Date is the most visible and in fact the start of an
pointing when writing an informal letter. It is written in the top-right hand
corner of the page. There are two styles of writing the address. One is known
as the Standard English Version and the other is the American version. When
using the Standard version, the writer should slant the address up to the
point of the city or town of the address. When using the American Version,
the address is written as a block.
The following are some of the components that are to be found in the
address. The physical address, the postal address and the location or place to
be found. Remember that this is or acts as a description of or the location of
the writer.
The address should appear, depending on the formant that one has
chosen, as shown below:
Standard English Version
Ndejje University,
P.O BOX 7088,
Kampala
23rd October, 2007
Note that the address is written using the title heading formant: that is only
the initial letters are capitalised and the post office box direction. Make sure
that the date is not slanted.
American English Version
Ndejje University,
P.O BOX 7088,
Kampala.
23rd October, 2007
In case the postal box that you are using is not yours or belongs to an
institution that you are an employee or a student in, it is important to specify
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that you are using it as a reference to you. In this case indicate this by using
the abbreviation c/o as indicated below:
Standard English Version when the address is not personal but
rather of an institution.
c/o Kironde Ibrahim,
Ndejje University,
P.O BOX 7088,
Kampala
23rd October, 2007
American English Version when the address is not personal but
rather of an institution.
C/o Kironde Ibrahim
Ndejje University,
P.O BOX 7088,
Kampala
23rd October, 2007
The purpose of c/o (care off) is for prudence, that is to say, the reply if any to
your letter, not getting lost in the company or institutional correspondence.
That is to say when ‘care off’ is used, it clearly shows that this letter is for a
particular person in the company and not for the company.
2. Salutation is the second aspect or element of an informal letter. Like in
the army, a salutation is a kind of call or acknowledgement of the presence of
the person being addressed. It is literary the call for attention. This should
comes two lines below the address on the margin on the left hand side of the
page.
The salutation involves the use of the words of endearment like Dear, Hullo,
My Dear John and many other formations depending on the writer. However,
care should be taken in choosing the right phrase of salutation in relationship
to the degree of formality between the writer and the addressee. For
example the level of intimacy between the writer and a friend is not the same
between him/her and an uncle. Try choosing the neutral if there is need to
show a degree of social distance or respect to the addressee. The salutation
is to be shown as below:
Dear John,
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Remember to punctuate the salutation properly with a comma and start it
with a capital letter. This is to indicate that the thought pattern is still going
on after the salutation.
3. Introduction is the first part of the letter. This, as all introductions, does
set the pace of the letter. This is when the writer gives information about
him/her self and asks for information about the one he/she is writing to.
Expressions like: How are you? How is the family? Such expressions are
valuable. The next step is to inform your addressee what you think he/she
needs to know about you. This could include personal life information, new
developments and if the letter is a reply, the acknowledgement of receipt of
the letter that was written to you as well as measures taken to address the
issues that he/she had asked of you.
4. The Body is the largest part of the informal letter. It is in this part that the
writer says what he/she intended to say to the addressee. Note that each
paragraph of this section should contain one reason. Therefore, the number
of paragraphs that this section must have depends on the number of issues
or reasons that the writer intends to communicate to the addressee.
Remember to indent the paragraphs if you are using the Standard English
Version.
5. Conclusion is the last part of an informal letter. This is when the writer
concludes the letter. Indicate that you are about to end the letter.
Expressions like “Let me end here” or “I think I have covered enough” or any
other phrase could do. However, it is important to wish him/her well and ask
him/her to greet or pass on good wishes to the people that you two have or
know in common, where he/she is. End with a formulaic phrases like “Yours
faithfully, sincerely your brother” and any phrase that is appropriate in the
situation. Lastly sign your self. This could be at the left hand bottom of the
page if you are using the American version or the centre or the right hand
bottom of the page if you are using the Standard English Version as shown
below:
Yours truly,
Khamis Ahmed.
OR
Yours truly,
Khamis Ahmed.
OR
Yours truly,
Khamis Ahmed.
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Finally below is a sample personal letter that shows how the different parts
can be put together to write a good personal letter. Note that this may not be
the best of all personal letters ever written or to be written. However, it gives
one a perspective of what is involved in writing a personal letter, the
arrangement of the different parts and the style commonly associated with
this type of letter.
C/o Kibuuka Nicholas Kirega,
Entebbe Secondary School,
P.O BOX 1235,
Kampala.
September 13th, 2006
Dear Patrick,
I do hope you are fine and the family is doing well. How is
your new wife and Mamma Brian? How is work and I was told you
are expecting a promotion at the end of the year. Let’s pray that
you get it because you deserve it. On my part there is nothing to
complain about. Yes, our last born had a fever two weeks ago but
she is now fine. Gladys is preparing for the annually women’s
conference in Nairobi and I guess soon I will be a bachelor for a
week.
Gladys told me about the conversation she had with Miriam
over the weekend when they met upcountry during the burial of
my late uncle Ssemakula. You know they have always been close
since our days at the University and therefore, Miriam would not
lie to her. So I took what she told Gladys and Gladys later told me
seriously and hence this missive now. My point is that it is well to
take a second wife and I know that how gracious the second wife
is, naturally she will feel envious.
Let me hope my candour and openness does not offend
you. You know that under no circumstance will I not be forthright
with you. You have gone through a lot with Miriam and if you have
decided to take a second wife, so be it. But make sure that you
treat her with the utmost respect she deserves.
I have to confess that I have hastened to rebuke you
without hearing your side of the story. Off course there are always
two sides to any story and I look forward to your reassurance over
the issue.
Let me end here eagerly expecting your reply that will put
to rest this issue that has greatly perturbed me.
Kibuuka Nick.K
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Aspect of an Official Letter
An official letter is different from an informal letter both in content and lay
out. The differences between the two types of letters are in terms of their
purpose, and it is the purpose which determines what form of letter to be
written. The main components of a formal letter include: address, which is
the physical, postal and cyber location of the writer of the letter.
It is usually placed in the right hand corner of the page. When writing
an address, try to be consistent in punctuation and lettering. Each line should
be separated from the next by a comma and at the end of the address; there
should be a full stop. Note that if you choose to use upper case lettering in
the address, then this should be used consistently. However, it is advisable to
use heading capitalisation-where only the initial letter of each word is
capitalised. With the advances in technology, the formal letter has adopted
new features that were not included twenty years ago. These are the email
address and the mobile phone number which are mandatory when writing an
official letter. As stated earlier about the informal letter, the address should
be determined by what type or version of English you want to use. The choice
of either style is a decision that the writer must take depending on what
version will appear normal to his/her addressee. The point to focus on is that
if you are writing to an American company, the American version is
preferable and to a British audience the alternative version is recommended.
There are commonly two types to choose from and these are:
Standard English Version
Ndejje University,
P.O BOX 7088,
Kampala
Email:masters2000@yahoo.com
Tel:+2560772900700
23rd October, 2007
OR The American English Version
Ndejje University,
P.O BOX 7088,
Kampala.
Email:masters2000@yahoo.com
Tel:+2560772900700
23rd October, 2007
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The next aspect or component of an official letter is the Addressee, which
comes just below the address starting at the left hand side margin of the
page. This is where title and person to whom the letter is intended is written.
This is standard for all types and variations of English language. The example
below could suffice to illustrate the pThe addressee is followed by the
Salutation. This is a formal greeting which takes the neutral, ‘Dear sir or
Madam’. Note: however, if you are aware of the gender of the person you a
writing to. It’s advisable to choose the right title, but when in doubt use Dear
Sir/Madam.
The Managing Director,
Oxymoronic Investments,
P.O BOX 297845,
Kampala.
Reference (Re or Ref) is the next component of an official letter. It is the title
or the heading of the letter, which indicates the subject of communication. It
should be capitalized or written as a typical heading. However, it’s so
important to underline it.
The introduction is the first sentence of an official letter which summarizes
what and why you are writing at that particular moment to that person or
organisation. It is advisable that you make this one sentence and of not more
than 20 words that clearly and precisely states what and why you are writing.
If you are applying for a job, say so as clearly as possible.
Body is the most important component of an official letter. What is included
in the body varies from one type of the letter to the other. However, this is a
section in which we give the details about your topic. The illustration that will
come later on will clearly demonstrate this. It should be noted that the body
of an official letter should not exceed four paragraphs. The rationale is based
on the fact that the addressee is normally busy people who do not have the
time to read a length missive.
Conclusion is the last component of the formal letter. Usually use one
sentence that concludes your letter by recouping on your message. You
should try to be courteous. Then sign yourself and attach your name and title
where applicable as will be demonstrated in the examples later. If there are
attachments to the letter, these should come at the end of the letter.
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Types of Official Letters
A Letter of Application
The purpose of the letter of application is to impress a prospective employer
of your suitability for the post that he/she wants to fill. This means that you
must give him or her all the necessary details of the skills and competences
that you have. It is also useful to provide information of what would
apparently be your weaknesses.
By nature of time constraints attached to many official positions, the
employer normally does not have the time to read and internalize an
exhaustive autobiography of yourself, which means that the letter should
highlight the most important and essentials aspects of your personality that
is relevant to the post you are applying for.
In order to save the employer from being duped (deceived) by an insincere
employee or to stop an employee exaggerating his or her qualities in a letter
of application; it has become mandatory that the writer provides independent
sources that should provide a cross referencing mechanism. This verification
mechanism will reduce on the details you provide in the letter certainly
deliver you from temptation of exaggerating your abilities.
The verification mechanism is attached at the end of the letter (PS) that is
placed on the left hand side of the page immediately after the signature. (PS)
is translated as post script from Latin meaning after the letter. And it is
under this section that you provide the references- the people that can verify
what you have said (given in the letter). It normally starts with a statement:
“For further information, you may contact the following “
The references are normally 3 and must include the following categories of
people
a) An academic mentor
b) Spiritual leader
c) Anyone
However, none of your reference should be a close friend or a relative
because of any question of objectivity. Sometimes the employer will specify
to you what references he/she wants.
The format below is what should be followed when presenting the
referees,
a) Full name and title, Dr Nabutanyi Edgar or Prof. Nambi Tina
b) Their physical addresses e.g. the Faculty Education, Ndejje University,
and P.O.Box 7088, Kampala.
c) Telephone numbers both mobile and office telephone.
d) Email address
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Note: if the letter is hand written, it’s preferable to write this in block letters
not a must but prudent for purposes of clarity. However, if the letter is type
set, use the title format.
2. The other likely attached on the letter of application is the curriculum vitae
(CV). This is an elaborate presentation of yourself. The sections in a CV vary
from 4 to as many as you want to provide but the most key are;
a) Bio data (personal data) where you have the name, sex,
date of birth, marital status, number of dependants
(children), contact address (like the one above)
b) Academic qualification (record) (P1- degree certificate)
c) Employment/professional record; the year, title or
position you held and institution in which you were
working.
d) The skills you have; this may include the languages
spoken (used), hobbies and then the 3 referees.
NDEJJEUNIVERSITY,
P.O BOX 7088,
KAMPLA.
28th FEBRUARY 2007
Tel: 0782799481
E-MAIL:Kasa@yahoo.Com
THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
RURAL DEVELOPMENT TRAINING KIGADI
P.O.BOX 298
KARUGUZA
Dear Sir,
RE: APPLICATION FOR A TEACHING POST
I humbly apply for the above mentioned post in reference to
your advertisement that appeared in The New vision of 19th
January 2007.
I am a Ugandan male aged 25 years, currently pursuing a
Bachelors degree at Ndejje University majoring in English and
Literature. Currently I am in my last semester and my
graduation is set for June 22nd 2007.
I will be in position to teach and perform duties allocated to
me effectively, since I will have completed the course.
I will be very grateful if my application meets your utmost
consideration.
I remain yours faithfully,
Kakuru Jackson
KAKURU JACKSON
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The application letter above is an example of a standard application in which
the applicant states the purpose of his/her application and the qualities that
make him/her suitable for the post. The second example goes a step further
by providing the addressee with possible sources of cross-referencing the
information he/she has given. From an employer’s point of view, the second
applicant is quite serious when compared to the first. Therefore, the ball is in
your court, do you want the addressee to consider you serious and treat you
so?
MRS. LUBOWA JUSTIN,
PLOT 16 OBIYA ROAD,
P.O.BOX 702,
GULU.
23rd APRIL 2007
Tel: 0712233749
E-MAIL: lubostin@gulu.ac.ug
THE GENERAL MANAGER,
UGANDA TELECOM,
P.O.BOX 2115,
KAMPALA.
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: APPLICATION FOR POST OF CUSTOMER CARE
MANAGER
I hereby express my interest in the above mentioned post in
response to your advertisement that appeared in The Monitor dated 9th
April 2007.
At the age of thirty years, I am a Ugandan female married with two
children aged eight and four respectively. I am currently working as Public
Relations Officer with Cairo Bank based in Alexandria, Egypt.
I will be grateful if my application is put into consideration.
Yours Faithfully
Lubowa Justin
LUBOWA JUSTIN
P.S
For further information, you may contact the following
1. Sebuliba Mendoza, Plot 26, church hill drive, doctors Plaza
P.O.Box 1150 Kampala, Kabalagala. Tel: 031499323.
2. The Right Reverend John Ochola, Church of Uganda P.O.BOX 107
Gulu. Tel:+2560774567897
3. Mr. Sendikowa Charles, The manager SHELL Uganda P.O.BOX
7125 Kampala Tel: 0782204673.
As stated earlier this applicant demonstrates seriousness by attaching
curriculum vitae at the end of the letter. The assumption he/she makes is
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that the information given in the letter proper is not sufficient to give the
addressee the true picture of his/her qualities, therefore the need to provide
a detailed life experience as an option for the addressee to consider.
CURRICULUM VITAE
BIODATA:
NAME: LOBOWA JUSTIN
SEX: FEMALE
14th JUNE 1973
DATE OF BIRTH:
MARITAL STATUS: MARRIED
POSTAL ADRESS: 720 GULU
ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS
YEAR QUALIFICATION INSTITUTION
2003 Certificate Ndejje University
Administration &
Management
1999 - BDS University of
2002 Cairo
1996 UACE Wanyange girls
-1998 Secondary school
1991– UCE Iganga Girls
1995 Secondary school
1983 PLE CERTIFICATE Bat Valley
-1990 Primary School
SKILLS/LANGUAGES USED
English
Luganda
Swahili
Acholi
Computer Knowledge
REFERENCES:
1. Sebuliba Mendoza, Plot 26, church hill drive, doctors Plaza
P.O.Box 1150 Kampala, Kabalagala. Tel: 031499323.
2. The Right Reverend John Ochola, Church of Uganda P.O.BOX 107
Gulu. Tel:+2560774567897
3. Mr. Sendikowa Charles, The manager SHELL Uganda P.O.BOX
7125 Kampala Tel: 0782204673.
Take time and compare the C.V and letter above with the next set. It will be
obvious to you that both are well written, however, the later omits the
reference section. It is good to elaborate about yourself. However, it is
prudent to allow your audience to verify this information, if they choose to.
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Therefore, it is important when writing a C.V to provide the reference section.
In some advertisements they will specify how many to include and of what
calibre.
C/O MIBEI AGNES,
SOUTH .B. AVENUE,
P.O.BOX 8067,
NAIROBI.
20th FEBRUARY 2007
Tel: 0321 - 1784
E-MAIL: Agnes @ yahoo. Com
THE MANAGING DIRECTOR,
NORTH SOUTHLAND COOPERATIVE LTD,
P.O.BOX 789,
NAIROBI,
Dear Sir,
RE: APPLICATION FOR THE POSITION OF
EMPLOYEE RELATIONS OFFICER
In response to your advertisement in today’s press, I wish to apply
for the position of employee relations’ officer with your
organization.
I am a Kenyan female aged 23 years, currently a student at Moi
University, Kesses, and pursuing Bachelors Degree of Arts with
Languages. I am in my last semester ending in August and
graduating in December.
I will be in position to serve your company since it will be after my
studies. I am enclosing my curriculum Vitae giving details of my
education and experience and other relevant information.
I will be grateful for the opportunity of an interview.
Yours Faithfully
mibei agnes
MIBEI AGNES
For the letter above the writer or applicant can attach a curriculum vitae
which provides the reader-in this case the prospective employer the
additional information he/she needs to determine whether the applicant
deserves the position or not.
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CURRICULUM VITAE
NAME: MIBEI AGNES
SEX: FEMALE
15th OCTOBER 1984
DATE OF BIRTH:
MARITAL STATUS: SINGLE
NUMBER OF CHILDREN: None
POSTAL ADRESS: 8067 Nairobi
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
YEAR AWARD INSTITUTION
2005 – Bachelor Degree with Arts Ndejje University
2007
2003 – Diploma in Secondary Ndejje University
2005 Education)
1999 – Secondary Certificate Moi Girls high School
2002
1991 – Primary Certificate Moi Barracks
1998 Primary
RESPONSIBILITIES HELD
YEAR RESPONSIBILITY INSTITUTION
2006 – Minister foreign affairs Ndejje University
2007
2004 - Secretary Debate Club Ndejje University
2005
2001 – Head Girl Moi Girls High
2002 School
2000 – House captain Moi Girls High
2001 School
1999 - Chairlady NYS club Moi Girls High
2000 School
WORK EXPERIENCE
2002 – 2003 Investigating Officer Kenya National Service
1998 – 1999 Children’s counsellor Ampath Organization
SKILLS
Driving, Typing, Sawing
HOBIES
Watching movies, Reading Novels and Newspapers, Swimming,
counselling, Playing Basket Ball.
It should be noted that the world has moved from substance to appearances.
In this respect, it is not what you know or the qualifications that you have
that determine whether you get the job or not. To this effect, for the
applicant to present him/herself in an attractive manner and therefore, create
that ‘first impression’ curriculum vitae can be jazzed up as the example
below shows. Note the artistic use of tables, the colour of the headlines and
the sectionalisation of the parts. You should agree that even if it was you who
was doing the selecting you would be impressed with such a CV, more so if
the titles of the sections were coloured.
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CURRICULUMVITAE
KAMPALA ANNET
A. PERSONAL DATA
Surname : Kampala
Other Names : Annet
Occupation : Accountant
Sex : Female
Religion : Protestant
Marital Status : Married
Date of Birth : 19th /September /1962
Nationality : Kenyan
Address : C/O STABIC Uganda
P.O. Box 31817, Kampala.
Telephone : +254772532746, +254772971204
kampalaannet@yahoo.com
Email :
B. PERSONAL PROFILE SUMMARY
I am a reliable team player with good interpersonal communication and team building skills. I have
demonstrated capability to effectively handle defined tasks in time with minimum supervision. I am
a computer literate with MS Word, excel, internet, Radar (mainly in loan reconciliation) and RDTM
for routine backups. Upon that back ground, I would wish to share and widen the scope of my
knowledge for further carrier development
C. EDUCATION BACKGROUND
LEVEL INSTITUTION YEAR AWARD
Bachelors Makerere University Kampala 2000-2003 Bachelors Degree in Commerce
Degree P.O Box 7062 Kampala
A level City High School- Kampala 1998-2000 Uganda Certificate of Education
(UACE)
O Level Kololo Sec School 1995-1998 Uganda Certificate of education (U.C.E)
Primary Kampala parents Primary 1988-1994 Primary Leaving Education (PLE)
School
D MAJOR QUALIFICATIONS
• Bachelors Degree in Commerce
E ADDITIONAL SKILLS / PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES
Ability to work under pressure

Ability to work in a team

Above all God Fearing

F MAJOR WORKING EXPERIENCE
Position, Organisation & JOB SUMMARY, ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Period
ACCOUNTS • Chairing credit committee at the branch level
MANAGER • Monitoring and supervising all activities in seven branches
• STABIC UGANDA • Managing portfolio by monitoring adherence to set condition.
• MAY 2005 to date
H PROFICIENCY IN LANGUAGES
Language Reading Writing Speaking
•English Very Good Very Good Very Good
•Luganda Good Good Good
•Rutoro/Runyoro very Good Very Good Very Good
•Lunyankole/lukiga Good Good Good
J HOBIES.
• Travelling.
• Making friends
K REFEREES.
1. Mr. Allaudin Chowdhury
Regional manager
BRAC Western Uganda
Mobile; 0712656850, 0701656850
I Kirungi Joyce, I declare that the information given above is right and true about me.
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Letters of Apology
It is believed that sorry is one of the most powerful words in any language.
Since to err is human, in our professional lives we are bound to err and if we
do it is human to say sorry and acknowledge our fault. In a professional
environment sorry is expressed through letters of apology.
A letter of apology is like any other official letter in terms of formant. It has
the address, the addressee, salutation and reference. The only difference is
that it is addressed to the person one wronged and the heading is
categorically stated as an apology and expressly stating the wrong done. The
other common feature of a letter of apology is the C.C-copy to section in
which the writer gives copies to other people who either know about his
mistake or those hurt indirectly by his action. Below are some samples of
letters of apology.
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
25th MARCH 2007
THE GUILD PRESIDENT
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
LADY IRENE CAMPUS
Dear Madam,
RE: APOLOGY FOR MISSING THE LAST TWO
CABINET MEETINGS
I humbly apologize for
missing the above-mentioned meetings and consequently not
fulfilling my obligations that I swore to.
It was due to sickness that
had rendered me incapable of attending. I contracted malaria on
18th March 2007 and from then to date, I have been down at
Mukko Hospital. That now I am steadily recovering, I hope to
resume my full service in a few days to come.
I will be very thankful if my
sincere apology is put under you at most consideration I remain
Yours Faithfully
Kakuru Jackson
KAKURU JACKSON
Guild Minister of Education.
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In the letter above, the writer apologies for not fulfilling his obligations to the
guild president and it should be assumed that since they are colleagues,
there was no need to copy the letter to some one else. The next letter of
apology demonstrates when such a letter needs to be copied to other
officials.
NAKALANZI MARTHA
C/O NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
19th MARCH 2007
THE VICE CHANCELLOR
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
Dear Sir,
RE: APOLOGY FOR A FORDGED A BANK SLIP
I hereby tender in my
apology to your office for having forged a bank slip for my tuition
fees for the second semester of the academic year2006/07.
I am a third year Bachelor
of Arts students offering English and Literature. This was because
I had financial constraints and we were drawing nearer to the
end of second semester examinations, and failure to pay meant
that I would miss the examinations. It is this fear that drove me
to do something that is wrong and I promise never to do it again.
I am looking forward for your positive consideration
Yours faith fully,
nakalanzi martha
NAKALANZI MARTHA
Letters of Invitation
Another type of official letter is the letter of invitation. As the name suggests,
the purpose of this letter is to formally invite a person or a group of people to
a function or an activity. Of recent, invitation cards have in a way replaced
the invitation letter. Nevertheless, an invitation letter is quite crucial if you
are inviting key officials to a function.
In formant terms, it is no different from any other type of official letter. It is
different in terms of content. The reference of such letters should clearly spell
out that the person is being invited and for what he is being invited. If
possible the heading of the letter should specify where and when the function
or the activity is going to take place.
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The introductory statement reinforces the heading of the letter by again
stating that the person or people have been invited for a specific function at
a particular place and time. This should be done in a sentence of not more
than 20 words.
The body paragraph should give details of the function/activity to which
someone is being invited. Indicate to the person clearly the place, how to get
to it and what time the function is starting and ending. Such information is
crucial if someone is to either attend or decline the invitation.
End courteously by requesting the person or people to attend and indicate
how or what a honour it would be to have them present at the function or
activity. In other words, you are inviting them because they are important,
therefore, make them feel important. Please always attach a copy of the
programme of the function/activity. Below are some samples of invitation
letters.
THE HEAD TEACHER,
KAKUNGULU HIGH
SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 20,
BOMBO.
28th FEBRUARY 2007
TO THE HEAD TEACHER,
NAMALIGA SECONDARY SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 168,
BOMBO.
Dear Sir
RE: INVITATION FOR A NETBALL MATCH
I humbly invite your school netball team to a friendly netball
championship to be held at our school sports ground on the 9th April 2007.
The purpose of the championship is to prepare our respective teams
before the National Championships later in the year. Five more schools have
been invited and these are: Bombo Senior Secondary School, Nalinya
Lwantale Girls, Shanamu High School, Ndejje Senior Secondary School and
Ndejje High school. The programme of the day is attached to this letter.
Your presence is highly appreciated
Yours Faithfully
mibei agnes
MIBEI AGNES
HEADTEACHER
KAKUNGULU HIGH SCHOOL
Below is another sample of a letter of invitation:
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ST. THOMAS SEN. SEC. SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 1119,
GABA.
19th MARCH 2007
TO THE HEAD TEACHER,
BOMBO ARMY SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 1723,
BOMBO.
THRU
THE HEADMASTER,
ST THOMAS SEN. SEC. SCHOOL
P.O.BOX 1119
GABA
Dear Sir
RE: INVITATION FOR A DEBATE
I humbly wish to invite your school debating club for a friendly debate to be held on 19 th
April 2007 in my school.
The debate will begin at 10:00 Am till in the afternoon. It is purposely to improve the
student’s capability in attempt to prepare for the debating champions league, next year. Invited
schools include Ndejje Sec. School, Nalinya Lwantale, Bombo and Ndejje High School. The
programme of the day shall be followed as it is attached to this letter.
Your presence will make the debate a reasonable competition
Yours Faithfully
Nambi Tinah
NAMBI TINAH
Sports Teacher,
St. Thomas Sec. School
Note that there is no noticeable difference between the two samples
provided. They both clearly and precisely stress the purpose of the invitation
and this is done courteously but in a firm manner. The only difference
between the two is that the first letter, the writer writes directly to her
counterpart, while in the second, she writes through the head teacher. It is
important if you are a junior officer to write through a senior officer, as this
lends credence to your communication. Good letters of invitation should
provide a sample programme for the expected invitees. A sample is provided
below.
KIBIBI DEBATING CLUB PROGRAMME FOR A FRIENDLY DEBATE TO
BE HELD ON 14th MARCH 2007 STARING AT 2:00Pm IN THE
SCHOOL MAIN HALL
TIME ACTIVITY VENUE
1:30 – 1:50 Arrival of Guests at School MH
1:50 - 2:00 Take their seats
MH
2:00 - 2:10 Anthems and then Introduction MH
2:10 – 4:00 Debate Starts MH
4:00-5:00 Refreshments
DH
Departure
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Requisition Letters
This is another type of letter, and as the name suggest it is that letter in
which you the writer writes for the express purpose of asking for something
from someone. What can be said about letters of requisition is that like any
other form of asking, the one doing the asking must be very courteous.
Otherwise the formant is like that of any other official letter.
C/O NAKALANZI MARTHA,
MINISTER OF INFORMATION,
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY,
P.O.BOX 7088,
KAMPALA..
19th MARCH 2007
THE GUILD PRESIDENT
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
Dear Sir,
RE: REQUEST FOR STATIONERY FOR GUILD AFFAIRS OFFICE
I hereby humbly request for stationery to be used in guild affairs.
The items needed are; twenty counter books for office use, eight file folders for keeping
records, three reams of paper for office use like writing minutes in a meeting, one box
of ball point pens for writing or recording down information, filing cabins for keeping
records, punching machine which helps in filing, one stapling machine for putting
papers together for easy keeping, furniture like the chairs, tables and cupboard and the
computer for data processing and storage as well.
I will be very grateful if the request is granted
Yours in service
Nakalanzi Martha
NAKALANZI MARTHA
c.c University Bursar
c.c Financial Minister
c.c Dean of students
The next letter of requisition is in all parts similar to the first letter. The only
difference is that the second letter lists the items requested for. Listing items
works to help achieve clarity and brevity of the letter and the request. It is
advisable to list the items you are requesting for, because this makes them
clear to your addressee.
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NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
1st JUNE, 2007
THE DEAN OF STUDENTS
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
Dear Sir,
RE: REQUEST FOR STATIONERY
I am hereby writing to request for stationery to be used for the distribution of
information about the forth-coming meeting of the guild cabinet to take place on the 10th
of June.
I would like to be given the following items;
1. Four markers: one blue, two black and one red,
2. Six manila papers, green in colour,
3. One bottle of office glue, office pins.
I would be grateful if my request is put into consideration.
Yours Faithfully
Lawino Rebecca
LAWINO REBECCA
Information Minister
Ndejje University
c.c Guild Secretary, Ndejje University
Open Letters
Open letters are by definition, those letters addressed to no specific person.
By this we mean that an official letter is written, but without anticipating the
official going to read it. In fact these are letters we write in anticipation that
they will be required. Open letters include letters of introduction and letters
of recommendation. In the two cases listed above, the writer is not sure who
is going to read the letter but is quite sure that that letter will be requested
for.
When writing an open letter, we specify the writer’s address and position in
the address and the signature and we make the person being recommended
or introduced the subject of the letter. At the same time the addressee is left
open with the statement, “To Whom It May Concern.” For further assessment,
examine the samples below:
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NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
P.O.BOX 7088
KAMPALA
19th MARCH
2007
TEL:
0772511342
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: NATALIE NORIS
This is to notify you that the above mentioned is a bon fide student of Ndejje
University. She is a third year female student and resides in Mutesa hall at the
Lady Irene Campus.
The above student has lost her identity card. It has been missing since the sixth
of June 2007. Please render her services required
Yours faithfully,
lawino rebecca
LAWINO REBECCA
DEAN OF STUDENTS
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY
At state above, most introductory and recommendation letters have no
specific addressees. Nevertheless, there are times when the addressee
is known before hand. In this case when writing such a letter, it is
advisable to address it to those specific officers. The sample of a
recommendation letter below could be useful to illustrate the point
below.
NAKALANZI MARTHA,
NDEJJE UNIVERSITY,
P.O.BOX 7088,
KAMPALA.
10th MARCH 2007
THE HEADMISTRESS,
MARY HILL HIGH SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 26,
MBARARA.
Dear Madam,
REF: RECOMMENDATION OF NAMBI RACHEAL FOR A VACANCY IN YOUR
SCHOOL
I hereby write this letter in reference to your letter, which was dated on the 8th March
2007 seeking recommendation of Nambi Rachael to your school.
Nambi Rachael is a well behaved student and has been a student in saint Joseph’s
Nagalama S.S for the last four years. She is a good sports lady who successfully excelled in
volleyball, netball and academics as well. She is also a very disciplined and hardworking student.
She left her former school because her parents are no longer living in Mukono but
shifted to Mbarara Town and it is prudent that she goes to a school that is near to her new home.
Looking forward to your assistance.
Yours Faithfully,
Nakalanzi Martha
NAKALANZI MARTHA
HEADMISTRESS
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Letters of Appointment
After your University education, you will apply for many vacancies that you
come across and for sure you will be given a job. If an organisation offers you
a job, it is a standard practice that they will write to you informing you of the
good news that they have decided to give you a job. The letter that is written
to formally offer you employment is called an appointment letter.
The other scenario is that as by your training some of you will become
Human Resource managers of your organisations. In this position, one of your
responsibilities is to hire the competent manpower for your organisation. On
deciding who among the normally many applicants, you are expected to offer
them a letter of appointment. This means that one must be familiar with the
formant and content of a letter of appointment.
Like any other type of letter, an appointment letter is no different in terms of
structure and formant. It must have the address, which in this case it is the
organisation that is offering employment, the addressee in this case the
person to whom employment is being offered and the reference is the job
being offered. Remember it is prudent to state exactly the post or opening
that is being offered to the person.
The introduction of an appointment letter expresses happiness and pleasure
in offering the job to the person and the date when the appointment goes
into effect must be clearly specified. If it is an initial offer of employment, it is
standard that a certain period is probationary and this fact must be clearly
stated. If it is not, the possibility that the person who under performs and
therefore, must be let go will legally demand for dismissal or retirement
benefits that he/she does not qualify for.
In the body of the letter, state exactly the remuneration that the addressee
must expected from the organisation. This should include the basic pay and
all other allowances and entitlements. It is normal that an entrant in an
organisation starts at a lower salary compared to older employees. This fact
should be specified and so should the class/scale in which the employee falls
in. In the body of the appointment letter, you must specify the immediate
boss of the employee. In other words tell him/her to whom and where to
report for deployment. It is one thing to give some one a job and quite
another if you do not direct him/her to whom she/he should report. In this
section also specify the documentation needed to make the employment
formal. These will include and not limited to terms and conditions of services,
the job acceptance form, medical report as well as identity.
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As you conclude the letter, be courteous and wish him/her a pleasant stay in
the organisation and success in his/her career. Sign the letter and indicate
the position that gives you the power to hire him/her and as a post script
copy the letter to relevant officers that will participate in the deployment or
integration of the officer in the organisation.
Sample I Appointment Letter.
S-Communication Initiatives,
P.O Box 2345,
Kampala.
www.s-communicationinitiatve.com
24/10/2008
Our Ref: HR/D/O8
Mr. Okello Boniface,
P.O Box 6789,
Kampala.
Dear Sir,
RE: APPOINTMENT AS CREATIVE DIRECTOR
I am pleased to inform you that following the interviews held on the 4/5/2008 held at our
company head quarters, plot 234 Lumumba Avenue, the Human Resource Department decided to
appoint you as a Creative Director effective 1/11/2008. This offer is on a two year contract
renewable depending on satisfactory performance and mutual consent.
Initially you will serve on a six (6) months probation after which the offer of a permanent
appointment will be given depending on the review of your performance. If your performance is
below the company’s expectation, the company reserves the right to terminate your services with
no liabilities even before the end of the probation period if it is deemed to be in the interest of the
company.
The salary attached to this post is S-C/3 starting from 5.405.129 Uganda shillings to
10.342.240 Uganda shillings per month including housing and utilities allowances before taxes. The
entry point in your case is 5.405.129 Uganda shillings
You will be reporting to the Vice President-Marketing and Advertising who will provide you
with a copy or the terms and conditions of services as well as your job description. Study the two
documents carefully, after which submit a written acceptance and a comprehensive medical
examination report from a registered physician in 14 days.
Wishing you God’s blessing for success in your work with S-Communications.
Yours Sincerely
Archie Burton
ARCHIE BURTON
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER
CC.
CEO
Financial Controller
VP Marketing and Advertising
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Sample II Appointment Letter- Standardised Form.
King’s College Masaka,
Nyendo Masaka,
P.O Box 8976,
Masaka.
Date...........................................
Ref: SA/08/G
TO:
Mr./Mrs./Miss....................................................
APPOINTMENT LETTER
Dear Sir/Madam
I am pleased to inform you that King’s College Masaka Board of Governors have directed
me to offer you appointment as ..........................
Teaching.............................................and..........................................
The appointment is subject to the terms and conditions of King’s College Masaka, and
my be amended from time to time.
In addition, your appointment will include the following terms:
a) Salary scale ......................................................................
b) Starting salary...................................................................
c) Date of appointment..........................................................
d) Incremental date..................................................................
e) Probation period...............................................................
I have to request you to inform me in writing if you are prepared to accept this offer on
the stated terms and if so report to the nearest Doctor for a medical examination.
Wishing all the best in your career at King’s College Masaka.
Yours faithfully
........................................
...........................................
HEADMASTER
CC
Chairman B.OG
School Bursar
Chairman P.T.A
School File
Confirmation Letters
Most forms of employment are contractual and even those that permanent
and pensionable, there is always a probation period that the employ must
fulfil before the temporal terms are changed. The period of probation varies
from one institution to the other. In some, the period is 3 month, in others it
is 6 months but the standard is two years.
After successfully serving the company or institution for the mandatory
period of probation, the Human Resource Manager on behalf of the institution
or company must let the employee know whether he/she has satisfied the
company or institution. This is through a confirmation letter. This spells out
whether the employee is being given permanent status in the company or
institution acknowledging that the company or institution is pleased with his/
her services.
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Like it is the case with all other types of letters, the confirmation letter has
the usual aspects like the address which in this case is that of the company,
the addressee who is the employee being confirmed and the different parts
like the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
Where the confirmation letter differs from other types of letters is in its
content and the language used. Like it is the case with the appointment
letter, the writer should express happiness in communicating to the
addressee on this subject in the first paragraph or introduction which should
follow the heading which in this case is confirmation in a particular position in
the organisation. In the body of the letter refer to the instrument that
warranted the current communication and specify what the candidate must
fulfil if he is interested in the position being offered. Refer the said candidate
to any legal and contractual obligations that he/she should be aware off. In
conclusion, be courteous and which the appointee a happy and prosperous
stays in the organisation.
Note that not all people employed in an organisation impress the
management and do their work well. This means that as others are
confirmed, others are let go. To many people, letting someone go is the
hardest thing to do. Hard as it may be, some one has to do it. This means
that a dismissal letter has to be written. In case the person has been
incompetent or indiscipline meaning he/she has been warned several times
the writing of the letter and the actual action is not hard. For someone who
despite he/her commitment does not fit in the profile of the organisation, the
letter and the action can be very difficult.
Therefore, when writing a dismissal letter have the following points in mind.
Let the letter be short but to the point. Do not outline what you assume are
his weakness or shortcomings. Be courteous and apologetic to the person
and wish him a successful career else where. Below is a sample confirmation
and dismissal letter. Use them as a reference when you get need to write
one.
SAMPLE CONFIRMATION LETTER
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PROTONS INCORPORATED
P.O BOX 12357,
KAMPALA.
31ST JULY, 2023.
MR. KANGULI DEO,
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: CONFIRMATION IN APPOINTMENT AS
COMMUNICATION DIRECTOR
I pleased to inform you that the Board of Director during their fifteenth
annual sitting reviewed the performance of your probation period and in minute 23/
BOD/23[34] directed that you be confirmed in your appointment as a
communication director and be admitted to the mid­level management withal
benefits related to this category of employees.
Your attention is drawn to the conditions and terms of service and
specifically to the company official secrets and disclosure expectation as outlined in
chapter 1 sub­section a­d paragraph 5­8.
If you are ready to take the appointment and abided by the expectations
referred to above, inform this office in writing in a period not exceeding 14 days
from the reception of this letter.
Yours faith fully,
......................
Gordon Gideon
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER.
SAMPLE OF A DISMISSAL LETTER
PROTONS INCORPORATED
P.O BOX 12357,
KAMPALA.
31ST JULY, 2023.
MR. KIGULI ALEX,
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: TERMINATION OF SERVICE
I hereby regret to inform you that the Board of Directors during their fifteenth sitting on the 23rd of
July, 2034 directed that your services with the company be terminated immediately. It has revoked article 12
sub­section a­f in your contract that specifies that your annual salary and gratuity will be paid to you
immediately and holds the indemnity of paying half your current salary if you are not employed two years from
the date of your termination.
The company is restructuring its core operations as a result of the Financial Markets meltdown and it
regrettably feels that your core competencies are not what it requires at this critical time.
We wish you a prosperous career.
Yours faithfully
............................
Gordon Gideon
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER.
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Writing Agreements and Other Legal Documents
Most of you will be expected to transact business on behalf of the
organisations that you work for. In the good old past people would keep they
word and what they promised to do, they would do so. The concept of
shaking hands after concluding a deal comes from this period when ones
word was his/her bond. Currently though people will say one thing and in a
blink of an eye will say the opposite of what he had promised.
Assuming that you will deal with honest and upright kind of people, you
should know that human life is transient. Yes you could make a deal with
someone and fifteen minutes after, this person may pass away. In his/her
death, so vanishes the agreement you made. Sometimes you may transact
business with someone and after inquiry, he/she will be influenced to change
his/her mind and so doing the understanding that you thought you had goes
up in smoke.
It is the scenarios listed above that calls upon any one to al least have a
rudimentary understanding of and ability to write some of the common legal
documents. It is true that some of the organisations that you will work for will
have a legal secretary whose job description will be drawing some of these
documents, but there will be times when he/she is not available and you will
need to draw these documents. Therefore, it is important to know how they
are drawn. Below are some samples of common legal documents.
AGREEMENTS SAMPLE I
TENANCY AGREEMENT
I Nakiwanuka Prossy hereby accept to let my house which is at
Nansana West Zone I to Mr. Kawuki Boniface of Kampala.
THE CONDITIONS OF TENANCY ARE AS FOLLOWS
1. The tenant will be required to pay a monthly rent of 200,000 (shilling)
per month.
2. The tenant shall pay twelve month’s rent in advance totalling
to2.400.000shillings) after which the tenancy agreement shall be
renewed on terms that will be agreed upon by both parties.
3. The tenant will pay all utility bills for the duration of his/her tenancy.
4. The landlord will periodically renovate the building to accepted
standard.
5. The tenant will be required to care for the house and maintain it to
reasonable standard approximate to the state it was found in.
This agreement is made this day 7th of December,2009 between the
afore mention person, Nakiwanuka Prossy and Kawuki Boniface and is
effective from the above stated date.
If the above terms and conditions are acceptable to both parties
indicate by affixation of their respective hands and seals.
TENANT SIGNATURE
.................................... ..................................
LAND LORDS:
................................. ...............................
WITNESSED
1. ........................... ...............................
2................................. ...............................
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AGREEMENTS SAMPLE II
THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA
CAR SALE AGREEMENT
THIS CAR SALE AGREEMENT made this 17th day of March 2013
BETWEEN
HOOD BALILUNO of P.O Box 2341, Kampala [Hereinafter referred to as the ‘vendor’]
which expression shall where the context so admits include her assignees and
successors in title of one part
AND
GUMA GUMISIRIZA OF P.O Box 9087 Masaka [Herein referred to as the
buyer/purchaser] which expression shall where the context so admits include his/her
assignees or successors in title of the other part.
WITNESSTH that
WHEREAS the vendor is the owner of car TOYOTA CORONA ST190, registration number
UAJ231K he is desirous of selling.
AND WHEREAS the buyer/purchaser is desirous of purchasing the said car.
It is now hereby agreed as hereunder:
1. That the vendor has agreed to sell the said car to the purchaser for the total
amount of Uganda shillings Ten Millions [10,000,000]
2. That the purchaser has agreed to purchase the said car at the above stated
price.
3. That the money will be paid in cash to the vendor at which he will hand over the
log book of the car and sign the transfer forms signalling transfer of ownership.
4. That the purchaser will take the “as it is” and is liable to any malefactions not
noticed at the sale.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the vendor and the buyer have hereunto set their respective
hands the day and month and year first above-mentioned
SIGNED by the said
HOOD BALILUNO ............................ VENDOR
In the presence of: ........................... WITNESS
SIGNED by the said
GUMA GUMISIRIZA ...........................PURCHASER
All in the presence of: ..........................L.C.I CHAIRMAN KAZO
DRAWN BY
AKIKI & CO. ADVOCATES
P.O BOX 6784, KAMPALA.
Certificates
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Some of you will be involved in the training of the people in a bid to give
them specific skills and knowledge for purposes of improve their own lives
and those of the people they live among. In such case, knowledge of how a
certificate is written is very important. This is because many trainees value
the certificate given after the training than the training itself because it is a
physical evidence that they trained. Using the sample below, the main
components of a certificate can be analysed and put you in position to
produce yours whenever the need arises.
Sample of a Certificate
NO TO HIV LUWERO
UNIVERSITY
Certificate of Attendance
This is to certify that
.........................................................
Has satisfactorily completed the
Luwero University’s anti-HIV
sensitisation programme, held at the
Department of Communication and
Media Studies, Luwero University,
Luwero between 13th and 31st July
2010.
.................................. ................................
Ivan Musoke Dr. Kawala Jocye
Club Chair person Head of Department
NO TO HIV Communications and Media Studies
Luwero University
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Below is a sample of a Transcript which is another type of a certificate.
INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Registrar’s Office P.O BOX 1231 KAMPALA
DATE ................................
ACADEMIC TRANSCRIPT
NAMES....................................
REGIDTRATION NO ..............................................YEAR...................
TYPE OF ENTRY.................................COURSE.................. DURATION...........
YEAR OF COMPLETION.................... DEPARTMENT ...............................
YEAR I YEAR II
SUBJECTS GRADE GRADE
CUSTOMER RELATIONS A A
ELECTRONICS I A A
ELECTRONICS II A A+
GEOTRONICS B- A
ECOTRONICS A B
PRACTICALS A A
AWARD:..............................
CLASS ....................................
KEYS A=70-100, B=60-69, B-=50-59, C=40-49, D=35-39, F=00-34
..........................
REGISTRAR
Writing Press Statements and Releases
No organisation is immune to the media. In its lifespan at one point any
organisation will have to deal with the media. This could be voluntarily or
forcefully. This is because the media is very influential in people’s perception
of the organisation. The media informs people of the activities that an
organisation performs as well as helping to form people’s opinions and
perceptions of an organisation. Because of these and other important roles
that the media plays, any organisation and especially people who work in
these organisation should have a working knowledge of how the media works
and how they write.
Like all professions, the media is guided by strong ethical guidelines on what
to publish-more specifically the ideal that they should publish the truth and
should always go to all length to establish the truth. In real life, sometimes
the media gets it wrong and when they do it is hard for them to admit that
they got it wrong. In cases when they do admit culpability, the correction is
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hidden in the inner pages and in tiny font and print that it essentially does
not correct the harm done.
If the media, because of the laziness or the lack of professionalism of a
reporter does not write false hoods about an organisation, it may completely
ignore the good work that the organisation is doing. This is because media is
a business and may decide that writing about an NGO fighting for people’s
human rights may jeopardise its relationship with the government from
whom they get advertising revenue and ignore the stories about the
company.
In both the case above, the organisation has a way out and this is through
the publication in the media either a press release or statement. The name,
release and statement really do not differentiate from or in the content of
each text. Under whatever name, it is a paid for communication by the
organisation either to report its achievement or refute allegations made
about it. Of course the organisation can hire a media consultant to write this
text for them, but the problem with outsiders, is that they are not familiar
with the work of the organisation and as such may not capture the reality of
the company or organisation. Therefore, the people in the organisation must
give a hand and this is possible if they have a clue on how it is written. Below
is a sample of a standard press release.
SAMPLE OF A PRESS RELEASE
STAR ENTERPRISES UGANDA LIMITED
P.O BOX 12312
KAMPALA
TEL:0392345987
0412324567
EMAIL:con@starenterprise.co.ug
PRESS RELEASE
This is to inform the general public that the allegation made in the story entitled, “MD
FLEES WITH COMPANY FUNDS” in The Nation Star of July 2nd 2009 on page 14was
false and should be disregarded.
This is to inform our clients and the general public that we do not have the
person named in the story in our management team and that no funds or the
organization are missing. The story if it is not a concoction of the reporter, it might be
about another company in another country and the reporter would have known this
had he attempted to cross check with our company.
We regret any inconveniences such information might have caused to our
investors and clients.
Amos Wejuli
Public Relations Officer.
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Public Notice
Some times the press release could take another name and this could be a
public notice. In form and content the two are similar. A press release and
public notice have the same features. These are clear address and location of
the firm clearly at the top of the page. This should include the symbol/seal of
the organisation. This should be followed by the clear heading entitled press
release or public notice. Then, a brief communication that clearly states the
issue and the organisations perspective. Lastly it should be signed by a
competent official that the public can believe. Below is a sample of a public
notice.
Sample of Public Notice
CAA
CONSTITUTIONAL ACADEMIC AGENCY
PROTECTING YOUR RIGHTS AND FUTURE
PUBLIC NOTICE
CONSTITUTIONAL ACADEMIC AGENCY HAS FULL CONFIDENCE IN THE
UGANDAN COURTS
We refer to the article in The Courier of 23rd may, 2009
entitled “Agency Condemns Judiciary.”
This is to clarify that the CONSTITUTIONAL ACADEMIC
AGENCY has not drafted or issues a statement raising concern or
commenting on the state of the judiciary in Uganda. This article
was misleading and malicious and we distance ourselves from it.
CONSTITUTIONAL ACADEMIC AGENCY would like to reassure
the public that it has confidence in the Ugandan Judiciary and by
large is satisfied with its work and will continue working with it to
achieve acceptable levels of constitutionalism in the country.
Ddungu Katoma
CHAIRMAN
Writing an Affidavit
Am affidavit is a legal document in which a person makes a bidding legal
oath that is taken or administered before the commissioner of oaths or a
magistrate. The purpose of the affidavit is to legally state the truth to the
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best recollection of the despondent. It is in effect the traditional telling the
truth by swearing before something sacred. It is assumed that a person is
telling the truth about the subject if he/she takes the affidavit.
As much as an affidavit is a legal document that must be drawn and
administered by legal professionals, everyone ought to have knowledge of
how it is drawn and below is a sample standard affidavit.
THE REPUBLIC OF UGANDA
IN THE MATTERS OF THE OATHS ACT CHAPTER 52
AND
IN THE MATTER OF AN AFFIDAVIT IN LIEU OF OWNERSHIPS
AFFIDAVIT
I, KIGUNDUDU PIUS, OF KAWEMPE KAMPALA, P.O BOX
7865, do solemnly make oath and swear as follows:
1. THAT I am a male adult of sane mind, a Ugandan by descent
and therefore competent to depone the contents of this affidavit.
2. THAT on the 23rd of June, 2006 I purchased from Gunga Bosco a
motor car Honda CRV registration number UAK234L at a cost of
twelve million shillings that I paid in cash.
3. THAT the said Gunga Bosco acknowledged receipt of the
money in the presence of three witnesses attached in the
agreement and surrendered the car key and log book to me.
4. THAT I assumed legal ownership of the said car and would now
wish to transfer it into my names.
5. THAT what I have stated herein above is true and correct to the
best of my knowledge and belief.
Sworn by the said
Gunga Bosco ...................................
At Kampala on this 28 day of June, 2006 DEPONENT
th
BEFOR ME .........................
COMMISIONER OF OATH
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Writing Minutes
Minutes are defined as a record of what transpires during a formal meeting of
any organisation. They are sometimes defined as a report kept about the
meeting. Whatever, name they are given, what is important is that minutes
record what happens or what is discussed in the meeting with the express
purpose of having a record for reference in implementing the activities of the
organisation. As the organisation meets, it sets out plan and to check
whether these plans have been implemented, the surest way is to check the
minutes. The other purpose of minutes is for attribution. In this case they are
a record of what said what and when.
For purpose of this document, our interest is not necessarily the merits of
keeping minutes, but rather how they can be properly kept. The following are
some of the main components of minutes.
1. Title or the heading is the first component of minutes. When writing
the heading of minutes, make sure that they are stated as minutes.
In addition, name the organisation, they type of meeting, the date
on which it was held, the venue and last the time of the meeting.
The time could either be reflected from when it started or from
when it started to when it ended.
2. Agenda is the next component. This specifies the general topics
that guided the discussion. There are some mandatory items like:
prayer, communication from the chair, reading of minutes and
matters arising that must always be there. Other items will depend
on what the meeting is set to discuss.
3. Attendance is a list of members present, absent with apology and
those absent without apology. In other words, you should have an
attendance list that lists all those who are supposed to attend
whether they attend or not. Always start with the chair person and
end with the secretary, following the formant of name and position
or title.
4. Minutes are the main section of the minutes. For each item of the
agenda, create a minute. This should have a heading with an
abbreviation of the minute, the name of the item and the number of
the minute. You can start with number one and number
consecutively to the last item or you can number cumulatively from
the last meeting. For example if the last minute in the last meeting
was 10, then the first minute in the next meeting is 11.
5. Signature comes at the end of the items of the agenda and the
closing prayer. Provide a space for signing the minutes after they
have been read and accepted as a true record of what was
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discussed. The minutes are signed by the chair person and the
secretary. Below are two samples of minutes.
MINUTES OF THE NDEJJE FOREIGN STUDENTS ASSOCIATION 3RD GENERAL
HELD ON 24TH MARCH 2007 AT KAMPALA CAMPUS AT 11:00 AM
AGENDA
1. Opening prayer
2. Introduction
3. Communication from the chair
4. Reading of the previous minutes
5. Reaction to matters arising
6. About launching of Association
7. Nomination of the speaker
8. Closing prayer
ATTENDANCE
Present members
Ms. Brumen Alice
Mr. Onze Charles
Ms. Dough Pete
Ms. Kroges Rebecca
Ms. Kips Agnes
Mr. Matt Oga
Mr. Joe Fida
Absent With Apology
Ms. Cox Peters
Mr. Cowford Acham
Mr. Bendict Gonen
Absent with out apologies
Ms. Justin Inka
Ms. Amelia Akol
Min 1/3/06: Opening Prayer
There was an opening prayer from Mr. Onze Charles
Min 2/3/06: Introduction
All members introduced them selves.
Min 3/3/06: Communication from the Chair
The chairperson welcomed every one to the meeting and apologized for the delay.
Expressed appreciation to Mr. and Mrs. Matt oga, Ms Kips Agnes for the production
of the constitution. Informed members of the registration of the Association.
Suggested that flags to all countries should be raised during the launching.
Min 4/03/06: Reading of Previous Minutes
The general secretary read the previous minutes and members responded
Min 5/03/06: Reactions From Matters Arising
It was suggested that the information system should be re-arranged. One of the
members suggested that one flag should be used to represent all countries
Min 6/03/06: Launching of the Association
It was agreed that the launching should be on 8th April 2006 at Lady Irene Campus
at 2:00 Pm
Min 7/03/06: Nomination of the Speaker
Mr. Giten Kinde was nominated as the speaker for lady Irene Campus and Keiza
Brandy as speaker of Kampala Campus
Min 8/03/06: Closing Prayer
There was a closing prayer said by Ms. Krugen Rebecca
Sign......................
Sign..................
Chair Person Secretary
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Below is a second sample of minutes:
MINUTES OF END OF YEAR 2007 STAFF MEETING HELD ON WEDNESDAY 24th
NOVEMBER 2007 AT 10:00 AM IN THE PHYSICS LABARATORY
AGENDA
1. Devotion/prayers
2. Head teachers report
3. Minutes of the previous meeting
4. Reports i.e. Discipline and Academic committee
5. Matters arising 2, 3, and 4 above
6. End of term and holiday arrangement
7. A.O.B
Members Present
1. Mr. Sesanga Medi
2. Mr. Lukwago Cyrus
3. Mr. Katula Steven
4. Mr. Senyuzi Richard
Min 1/11/2007: Opening prayer
CALLED: The meeting to order at 10:00 am
REQUESTED: Mr. Senyuzi Richard led the opening prayer.
Min 2/11/2007: Chairperson Remarks
EXTENDED: Extended sympathies to those who had lost their dear ones.
THANKED: The lord for his Devine Protection, members for their in put.
CONGRATULATED: Members on the successful completion of the year.
OBSERVED:
• Spiritually growth among students
• Teacher – student relation ship has been good
• Increase in commodity prices had curtailed the schools capacity to
carry out all the programmes
Min 3/11/2007: Minutes of Previous Meeting
The minutes were read and approved after a few corrections
Min 4/11/2007: Committee Reports
The discipline committee
REPORTED:
• There were a few theft cases compared to previous terms
• Other offences include, trespassing and insubordination
• Muwonge Tony was suspended for two weeks for sneaking out of school
The academic committee
REPORTED:
• Reference to be made to the recommendation of the meeting held in the
middle of the term
Min 5/11/2007: Matters Arising
Matters arising from chairman’s remarks
NOTED
• Matters arising from the chairman’s communication
Matters Arising from the Previous Minutes
NOTED
• All members were called upon to abide by the domestic regulation
• The administration asked to provide plates and cups to students
• Students who tress pass to bring a roll of barbed wires
Min 6/11/2007: End of Term arrangements
NOTED
• End of term on 24th November 2007 at 8:00 Am
Min 7/11/2007: A.O.B
RAISED
• Food rations to be dished out
• Staff excursion to be in foreign countries
• Teachers who do not eat fried food to be catered for.
• The meeting ended with a closing prayer at 1:45 Pm
------------------------------ ----------------
Secretary Chairman
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Writing a Speech
A speech is a form of communication delivered to an audience through the oral
form of communication. In any language, there are two productive skills and
these are writing and speaking. Speeches are mainly a form of the productive
skills and as such mainly use the oral function to communicate.
As much a speech as a form of communication is oral, it is prudent that if one
is delivering a speech in a formal setting or to a large audience, he/she needs
to write it done. This is mainly because a written speech is more effective and
is not subjected to venue or time interruptions that can distort the message. It
is not practical to cram your speech, because a slight interference can make
you forget the whole speech and hence look a fool to your audience.
Therefore, the importance of a written speech is that it is a reference that the
speaker constantly refers to while making a speech. There are two ways of
writing a speech. The first type is the less structured formant. This is when the
speaker lists down the main points of his speech and expounds on them as he
delivers the speech. If one has access to the computer, then the programme
PowerPoint can be useful in providing a lay out of making these notes for the
speech. This type is recommended in a situation where the speech is delivered
to a less formal situation.
The second type is the written speech. This is a must when you are delivering a
speech in a formal situation. Sometimes a copy of a speech is required to be
given to the key members beforehand. And sometimes a copy is given to the
audience and they follow your presentation from their own copies. It is prudent
that in such situations the speech must be written in advance. Though is not
part of this document, it must be emphasised that even when the speech is
written, it should never be read. Below are some samples of written speeches
of the different types.
A THANKSGIVING SPEECH
Kasunga A Village Kibiito Sub County Kabalore District 29th March 2007
The area member of Parliament, Hon Tanka Bern Guest of Honour, The Chairman LC III, Kibiito Sub County, The
chief priest, Yerya Catholic Parish,The chair person LC 1 Kadindima Village
Ladies and Gentlemen
It’s by the grace of the almighty God that we have gathered to join in spirit and passion to celebrate with
our brother and Sister Joseph and Jennifer for having achieved the best of the achievements among the achievers
and those known in our area.Today we are celebrating various things achieved in a number of years; Mr. Magezi
Joseph was awarded a Doctorate degree in 2005 he highest level indeed, to be achieved in our area, Madam
Jennifer was crowned the best investor of the year 2006 – 2007 in Uganda. Their two illustrious children; Jack and
Diana passed their advanced level examinations in flying colours in what’s known as Government scholarship
scheme at University. All these victories among the very many other achievements, we should. In respect to the
above achievement s, we should always fall on our knees and thank God for what ever we get from above.Down in
my memory, when I was still young, I could not tell the difference between my biological father and mother from
the family of Joseph and Jennifer because they brought me up as immaculate as a crystal! I think, the best
achieved are the rewards from God for the Good things done by the family:The chief guest, invited guests ladies
and gentlemen; thank you: Kakuru Jackson
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From the sample above, it is important to highlight the following
aspects of a thanksgiving speech. One of the main aspects is the
heading or title of the speech. The tile should specify the type of
speech, the address and the observance of protocol.
Protocol is very important in formal speech and should be treated with a lot of
care. The rationale is that you should acknowledge every important person
present. This should take the following formant. Mention the person’s name
and his title and where possible his/her position. One should be aware of how
certain people are addressed. For example a Minister is honourable and a
President or Ambassador is His/Her Excellency. Another thing to note is start
with the most important and end with the least important.
Below is an example of a vote of thanks, yet another type of a written speech.
Ideally a vote of thanks is supposed to be an impromptu speech given
immediately after the main speaker has delivered his/her speech. But for
prudence sake, if you have a copy of the speech in advance, it is advisable to
write your thanks in advance as well.
In a vote of thanks, give it a title specifying that it is a vote of thanks and to a
specify person or group of people presented to them on a particular date and
place. This should be followed by the observance of protocol, an introduction
and the thanks. The tone of the speech should reflect thanks and you can
thank for as many things that you think are relevant. But most importantly a
vote of thanks should be short; if possible it should not take more than 5
minutes.
Sample I of a Vote of Thanks
A VOTE OF THANKS (SPEECH) PRESENTED TO THE AUDIENCE ON 20 th JANUARY 2006
AT PAUL’S GRADUATION
The District Education Officer, Mr. John Ssekaddu, the Chairman Local Council, Five Lubaga
Division the head of this family Mr. Ssekamatte Denis, together with his wife, the grandaunts
around and all ladies and gentlemen. You are warmly welcome for this special function in this
home and I would love to greet you all in the lord’s name.
I am Nambi Tinah, a second year student of Ndejje University. I am the grandaunts closest
friend and I would like to thank all of your for having come to make this a very special day. Your
presence has really made the function a meaningful one.
I would like to thank every one for every thing. I really don’t know how to express this but am so
delighted and happy. Let me leave God to pay you back for all your contributions. May God
bless you all. Thank you so much for having listened to me.
Nambi Tinah
Ndejje University
Below is another of a vote of thanks speech.
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Sample II of a Vote of Thanks
A VOTE OF THANKS PRESENTED TO THE PARENTS, STAFF MEMBERS AND
STUDENTS OF IGANGA GIRLS SECONDARY
SCHOOL AT 3.15 PM ON THE SCHOOL OPEN DAY
I recognize the presence of the Guest of honour, Honourable Nimulod Enoch, The
chairman Board of Governors, The chairman parents` teachers` Association, our
dear Head mistress, parents, ladies and Gentlemen.
On behalf of the school administration, I thank you all for responding to our call and
thank you for making this day a success. Special thanks go to the guest of honour,
honourable Nimulod Enoch who has greatly contributed to the academic
performance of the students. He personally opened two newly constructed
chemistry and Biology laboratories. He is a man behind their construction. Thank
you Honourable Nimulod Enoch.
I wish to express our heart-felt gratitude to our parents with out which this day
would never have been. We thank the parents for their support and for paying up
their children’s school materials. Our disciplinary measures taken and for taking
good care of the students while on holidays. Thank you.
There is a special group of people, who normally take control guide and protect the
children while they are here. We have not forgotten the teaching staff who wok as
hard to see to it that our school stays at the top. Teachers have done good work.
Thank you very much
Lastly but not least, we thank the students whose duty it is to work hard and
achieve the set aims and goals. Students have been disciplined and there have
been no cases of suspension or expulsion. Keep this up and e shall stay at the top.
I thank you all for the individual attention, for sacrificing your time to share with us
this occasion. Thank you ladies and gentlemen. Good day.
Lawino Rebecca
Head of Department
English literature
Another type of speech is the introductory speech. This is a speech given when
introducing someone to an audience. In formant, it is like any other speech. The
variation is in the content. When introducing someone, state the person’s name
and qualifications as accurately and briefly as possible. Endeavour to provide a
simple background of the person being introduced. Below is a sample of an
introductory speech.
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SPEECH OF INTRODUCTION OF THE NEW UNIVERSITY CHANCELLOR NKUMBA
UNIVERISTY AT NKUMBA UNIVERSITY GROUND ON 13th DECEMBER 2006.
Our Guest of Honour, The University Chancellor, The University Vice-Chancellor. The
University Secretary, University Academic Registrar, Dean Faculties, Dean Students,
lecturers, grandaunts, parents, ladies and gentlemen.
I would like to introduce our new University Chancellor. Most of you might not know him
and may be hearing about him today. Professor W.Senteza Kajubi PHD, MA BA Hons as I
have said is our University Chancellor. He has been a Professor in most of the East African
Universities. He was at one time a lecturer of Makerere University before he went for his
higher Education at the University of California in the USA. He has become a Professor for
the past six years at the University at Makerere, university of Nairobi, Kenya and the
University of Kenyatta also in Nairobi, Kenya.
Professor W. Senteza Kajubi his long term work of experience in his profession and the
establishment of the school of Education, Humanities and sciences as result of a great
demand from the public for a strong teacher Education Institutions in Uganda.
Professor. W. Senteza Kajubi we are happy to have you as our University Chancellor to
award degrees to the grandaunts today.
Thank you.
Nambi Tina
Lastly is an example of a typical structured speech. As the example below
reflects, there is no much difference between the general speech and the
other forms discussed above. Perhaps for emphasis, it should be noted that a
speech must have a title/heading, which should be followed by a protocol
section, an introduction and the main body of the speech should include all
the issues or points the speaker wants to pass over to his/her audience. This
is illustrated in the sample below.
A SPEECH PRESENTED TO THE NDEJJE UNIVERSITY GUILD ON THE 20 TH OF MARCH 2007 AT THE HAND
OVER CEREMONY OF THE YOUTH ALIVE CLUB IN MAIN HALL
I would like to recognize the presence of the vice Chancellor, the University Secretary, the Dean Faculty of
Education, The Dean of Students, the Chaplain, The Guild President with his Minister5s, The President of Youth
alive Club, all the Students, Ladies and Gentlemen.
I would also like to appreciate my invitation today as a guest of honour, ore to this, let me appreciate the efforts
of the organizing committee Youth alive club which has worked so hard to organize this day.
Let me thank the out- going office bearers especially the president of the club Mr. Ochen Louis and all his
ministers who have worked so tirelessly for the academic year 2007. They have worked so tirelessly for the
academic year 2006-2007. They have done good work like opening up a debating youth club alive where all the
Youth students go to share ideas amongst themselves thus proving morally up right and through sharing ideas,
they end up becoming good citizens of the country.
Today, let me welcome the in coming cabinet and tell them that there are too many challenges to where there
heading but should only work hard so as to achieve successfully their goals like the out going cabinet. For
example one of the challenges in such a club could be, one of the ministers not being in good terms with the
president of the club, so you as a member of the youth alive club, find means by reconciling and loving one
another to avoid conflicts.
I thank and appreciate all of you ladies and gentlemen for having listened
To me and sacrificed all your time here.
Nakalanzi Martha
Head of English Department Ndejje University.
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Writing a Report
A report is document written from one official to giving information about a
specific issue to another official. Normally it is from a junior official to a senior
official about a task that is assigned to him/her. For example a senior
marketing officer may task his/her junior to finding out why the company’s new
product is not doing well as anticipated. The junior officer will carry out a
research and at the end of the day will find out why the product is doing badly.
This information is to presented as a report to the senior officer.
Reports are crucial documents in a day to day running of any organisation that
it is important to know how they are written. Any action to be taken must
always be based on information and this information is best presented in
reports. In fact without reports, neither action nor decision can be taken.
Reports vary in as far as their purposes are concerned. There are what can be
referred to as simple and less structured reports and very structured reports.
Whether it is simple or highly structure, their formant remains the sample. A
report must have the following components. These include the title of the
report, which specifically state that it is a report, must indicate to whom and
from whom the report is to and from, it must have an introduction. The
introduction briefly explains what the report is about and how or why it was
conceived, including the mode of research used. The main body of the report
specifies the different issues that the report communicates.
For prudence’s sake, if your report is long-that is more than five pages, always
cover it with an executive summary of not more than one page. As stated
earlier, officials that are written to, normally do not have the time to read the
whole report. Therefore, an executive summary will highlight the key issues of
the report for the audience and if need be it can direct the officer to the
necessary sections of the report for further scrutiny. Below is a sample of a
report.
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REPORT ON STAFF UNREST AND LOW MORALE
FROM: EKANYA JOHN,
DEPUTY HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER,
WARID TELECOM, UGANDA.
TO: DVAND ALI,
SENIOR HUMAN MANAGER,
WARID TELECOM, INTERNATIONAL.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This report is in response to your memo dated 19th May, 2007 that hinted on the general unrest,
unexplained resignation and low morale of the work force in Warid, Uganda. According to your
specifications and advice, I conduct a research to ascertain the root cause of this phenomenon.
Below are the findings of the study carried out.
1.1 METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE
The research used mainly to methods of data collection. These were the questionnaire and
interviews. A total of 100 workers were used in the study. Of these 60 were given questionnaires
and 40 were interviewed. For triangulation purposes, the grapevine was used especially in
respect to those views that people were hesitant to air out. The study took a maximum of 4
weeks, of which two were for the collection of views and opinions and 1 for the analysis of the
data collected and 1 for writing the report.
1.2 FINDINGS
The study in the analysis of the data collected discovered three main patterns that explain the
low morale, unrest and unexplained resignation of the key staff members in the company. These
were:
1.2.1 LACK OF PROMOTIONS
The study observes that the main explanation for the demotivation and constant resignations is
the apparent lack of promotional channels for the staff. It was noted that any opening in the
company is filled by expatriate staff, normally of low quality compared to the current staff. To
most, their jobs were dead end from which for purposes of professional growth, they should
leave.
1.2.2 PAY PACKAGE
The research found out that the staff members are not satisfied with the total take home
package their receive. The discontent is two fold. In the first place, they are discontented
because of the reductions instituted last year across the board. They believe this was done
arbitrary and without their input. Secondly they feel that they are paid less than what other
people in the industry are getting.
1.2.3 POOR RELATIONS WITH MANAGEMENT
Most members of staff feel that they are badly treated by management. In all staff meetings
they are addressed with disrespected and constantly referred to as lazy and thieves. They also
complained that their views, especially about their welfare are not listened to.
1.3 CONCLUSIONS
This report draws the following conclusions in regards to the task given and the conditions on
the ground.
i. That there is a serious morale and employee dissatisfaction amongst the workers in the
company.
ii. There is poor communication link between top management and the workers.
iii. That there is no policy and an attempt to address the problems and interests of the local
workers.
1.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
The report recommends that to avert the deplorable labour relations in the company, serious
reforms should be undertaken on promotions, payments and communication. The report also
recommends that more worker-management dialogue is instituted and this should be done
regularly.
End Notes
There are many types of writings as well as scenarios that call for writing in
any profession. Some of these can be done by the officer him/her self and
others may require external assistance. For example, every organisation either
has a lawyer or has retained the service of a lawyer to help in drafting
documents that are of legal nature. Documents like affidavits, contracts and
agreements can not be written by any one other than an expert. That may be
the case, but it is important to acquaint one ‘self with at least the knowledge of
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writing the most basic documents, and this is exactly what this booklet has
attempted to do. As stated at the start, writing is not necessarily a talent, all
depend on practice and I hope this booklet will provide that theoretical
foundations to that practice.
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